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1. Overview

The NEORV32 RISC-V Processor is an open-source RISC-V compatible processor system that is intended as ready-to-go auxiliary processor within a larger SoC designs or as stand-alone custom / customizable microcontroller.

The system is highly configurable and provides optional common peripherals like embedded memories, timers, serial interfaces, general purpose IO ports and an external bus interface to connect custom IP like memories, NoCs and other peripherals. On-line and in-system debugging is supported by an OpenOCD/gdb compatible on-chip debugger accessible via JTAG.

Special focus is paid on execution safety to provide defined and predictable behavior at any time. Therefore, the CPU ensures that all memory access are acknowledged and no invalid/malformed instructions are executed. Whenever an unexpected situation occurs, the application code is informed via hardware exceptions.

The software framework of the processor comes with application makefiles, software libraries for all CPU and processor features, a bootloader, a runtime environment and several example programs - including a port of the CoreMark MCU benchmark and the official RISC-V architecture test suite. RISC-V GCC is used as default toolchain (prebuilt toolchains are also provided).

Check out the processor’s online User Guide that provides hands-on tutorials to get you started.

Structure

Annotations Types

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1.1. Rationale

Why did you make this?

For me, processor and CPU architecture designs are fascinating things: they are the magic frontier where software meets hardware. This project started as something like a journey into this realm to understand how things actually work down on the very low level and evolved over time to a quite capable system-on-chip.

When I started to dive into the emerging RISC-V ecosystem I felt overwhelmed by the complexity. As a beginner it is hard to get an overview - especially when you want to setup a minimal platform to tinker with…​ Which core to use? How to get the right toolchain? What features do I need? How does booting work? How do I create an actual executable? How to get that into the hardware? How to customize things? Where to start???

This project aims to provide a simple to understand and easy to use yet powerful and flexible platform that targets FPGA and RISC-V beginners as well as advanced users.

Why a soft-core processor?

As a matter of fact soft-core processors cannot compete with discrete (ASIC) processors in terms of performance, energy efficiency and size. But they do fill a niche in the design space: for example, soft-core processors allow to implement the control flow part of certain applications (like communication protocol handling) using software like plain C. This provides high flexibility as software can be easily changed, re-compiled and re-uploaded again.

Furthermore, the concept of flexibility applies to all aspects of a soft-core processor. The user can add exactly the features that are required by the application: additional memories, custom interfaces, specialized co-processors and even user-defined instructions. These application-specific optimization capabilities compensate for many of the limitations of soft-core processors.

Why RISC-V?

riscv logo

RISC-V is a free and open ISA enabling a new era of processor innovation through open standard collaboration.

— RISC-V International
https://riscv.org/about/

Open-source is a great thing! While open-source has already become quite popular in software, hardware-focused projects still need to catch up. Although processors and CPUs are the heart of almost every digital system, having a true open-source platform is still a rarity. RISC-V aims to change that - and even it is just one approach, it helps paving the road for future development.

Furthermore, I highly appreciate the community aspect of RISC-V. The ISA and everything beyond is developed in direct contact with the community: this includes businesses and professionals but also hobbyist, amateurs and enthusiasts. Everyone can join discussions and contribute to RISC-V in their very own way.

Finally, I really like the RISC-V ISA itself. It aims to be a clean, orthogonal and "intuitive" ISA that resembles with the basic concepts of RISC: simple yet effective.

Yet another RISC-V core? What makes it special?

The NEORV32 is not based on another (RISC-V) core. It was build entirely from ground up just following the official ISA specs. The project does not intend to replace certain RISC-V cores or beat existing ones in terms of performance or size. It was build having a different design goal in mind.

The project aims to provide another option in the RISC-V / soft-core design space with a different performance vs. size trade-off and a different focus: embrace concepts like documentation, platform-independence / portability, RISC-V compatibility, extensibility & customization and - last but not least - ease of use.

Furthermore, the NEORV32 pays special focus on execution safety using Full Virtualization. The CPU aims to provide fall-backs for everything that could go wrong. This includes malformed instruction words, privilege escalations and even memory accesses that are checked for address space holes and deterministic response times of memory-mapped devices. Precise exceptions allow a defined and fully-synchronized state of the CPU at every time an in every situation.

To summarize, this project pursues the following objectives (in rough order of importance):

  1. RISC-V-compliance and -compatibility

  2. Functionality and features

  3. Extensibility

  4. Safety and security

  5. Minimal area

  6. Short critical paths, high operating clock

  7. Simplicity / easy to understand

  8. Low-power design

  9. High overall performance

A multi-cycle architecture?!

The primary goal of many mainstream CPUs is pure performance. Deep pipelines and out-of-order execution are some concepts to boost performance, while also increasing complexity. In contrast, most CPUs used for teaching are single-cycle designs since they are probably the most easiest to understand. But what about something in-between?

In terms of energy, throughput, area and maximal clock frequency, multi-cycle architectures are somewhere in between single-cycle and fully-pipelined designs: they provide higher throughput and clock speed when compared to their single-cycle counterparts while having less hardware complexity (= area) and thus, less performance, then a fully-pipelined designs. So I decided to use the multi-cycle-approach because of the following reasons:

  • Multi-cycle architectures are quite small! There is no need for pipeline hazard detection/resolution logic (e.g. forwarding). Furthermore, you can "re-use" parts of the core to do several tasks (e.g. the ALU is used for actual data processing and also for address generation, branch condition check and branch target computation).

  • Single-cycle architectures require memories that can be read asynchronously - a thing that is not feasible to implement in real-world applications (i.e. FPGA block RAM is entirely synchronous). Furthermore, such designs usually have a very long critical path tremendously reducing maximal operating frequency.

  • Pipelined designs increase performance by having several instruction "in fly" at the same time. But this also means there is some kind of "out-of-order" behavior: if an instruction at the end of the pipeline causes an exception all the instructions in earlier stages have to be invalidated. Potential architectural state changes have to be made undone requiring additional logic (Spectre and Meltdown…​). In a multi-cycle architecture this situation cannot occur since only a single instruction is being processed ("in-fly") at a time.

  • Having only a single instruction in fly does not only reduce hardware costs, it also simplifies simulation/verification/debugging, state preservation/restoring during exceptions and extensibility (no need to care about pipeline hazards) - but of course at the cost of reduced throughput.

To counteract the loss of performance implied by a pure multi-cycle architecture, the NEORV32 CPU uses a mixed approach: instruction-fetch (front-end) and instruction-execution (back-end) are de-coupled to operate independently of each other. Data is interchanged via a queue building a simple 2-stage pipeline. Each "pipeline" stage in terms is implemented as multi-cycle architecture to simplify the hardware and to provide precise state control (for example during exceptions).

1.2. Project Key Features

Project

  • all-in-one package: CPU + SoC + Software Framework & Tooling

  • completely described in behavioral, platform-independent VHDL - no vendor- or technology-specific primitives, attributes, macros, libraries, etc. are used at all

  • all-Verilog "version" available (auto-generated by GHDL)

  • extensive configuration options for adapting the processor to the requirements of the application

  • highly extensible hardware - on CPU, SoC and system level

  • aims to be as small as possible while being as RISC-V-compliant as possible - with a reasonable area-vs-performance trade-off

  • FPGA friendly (e.g. all internal memories can be mapped to block RAM - including the register file)

  • optimized for high clock frequencies to ease timing closure and integration

  • from zero to "hello world!" - completely open source and documented

  • easy to use even for FPGA/RISC-V starters – intended to work out of the box

NEORV32 CPU (the core)

  • 32-bit RISC-V CPU

  • fully compatible to the RISC-V ISA specs. - checked by the official RISCOF architecture tests

  • base ISA + privileged ISA + several optional standard and custom ISA extensions

  • option to add user-defined RISC-V instructions as custom ISA extension

  • rich set of customization options (ISA extensions, design goal: performance / area / energy, tuning options, …​)

  • Full Virtualization capabilities to increase execution safety

  • official RISC-V open source architecture ID

NEORV32 Processor (the SoC)

  • highly-configurable full-scale microcontroller-like processor system

  • based on the NEORV32 CPU

  • optional standard serial interfaces (UART, TWI, SPI (host and device), 1-Wire)

  • optional timers and counters (watchdog, system timer)

  • optional general purpose IO and PWM; a native NeoPixel(c)-compatible smart LED interface

  • optional embedded memories and caches for data, instructions and bootloader

  • optional external memory interface for custom connectivity

  • optional execute in-place (XIP) module to execute code directly form an external SPI flash

  • optional DMA controller for CPU-independent data transfers

  • optional CRC module to check data integrity

  • on-chip debugger compatible with OpenOCD and GDB including hardware trigger module and optional authentication

Software framework

  • GCC-based toolchain - prebuilt toolchains available; application compilation based on GNU makefiles

  • internal bootloader with serial user interface (via UART)

  • core libraries and HAL for high-level usage of the provided functions and peripherals

  • processor-specific runtime environment and several example programs

  • doxygen-based documentation of the software framework; a deployed version is available at https://stnolting.github.io/neorv32/sw/files.html

  • FreeRTOS port + demos available

Extensibility and Customization

The NEORV32 processor is designed to ease customization and extensibility and provides several options for adding application-specific custom hardware modules and accelerators. The three most common options for adding custom on-chip modules are listed below.

A more detailed comparison of the extension/customization options can be found in section Adding Custom Hardware Modules of the user guide.

1.3. Project Folder Structure

The root directory of the repository is considered the NEORV32 base or home folder (i.e. neorv32/).

Folder Structure
neorv32               - Project home folder
│
├docs                 - Project documentation
│├datasheet           - AsciiDoc sources for the NEORV32 data sheet
│├figures             - Figures and logos
│├references          - Data sheets and RISC-V specs
│├sources             - Sources for the images in 'figures/'
│└userguide           - AsciiDoc sources for the NEORV32 user guide
│
├rtl                  - VHDL sources
│├core                - Core sources of the CPU & SoC
│├processor_templates - Pre-configured SoC wrappers
│├system_integration  - System wrappers and bridges for advanced connectivity
│└test_setups         - Minimal test setup "SoCs" used in the User Guide
│
├sim                  - Simulation files
│
└-sw                  - Software framework
  ├bootloader         - Sources of the processor-internal bootloader
  ├common             - Linker script, crt0.S start-up code and central makefile
  ├example            - Example programs for the core and the SoC modules
  │├eclipse           - Pre-configured Eclipse IDE project
  │└...               - Several example programs
  ├lib                - Processor core library
  │├include           - NEORV32 core library header files (*.h)
  │└source            - NEORV32 core library source files (*.c)
  ├image_gen          - Helper program to generate executables & memory images
  ├ocd_firmware       - Firmware for the on-chip debugger's "park loop"
  ├openocd            - OpenOCD configuration files
  └svd                - Processor system view description file (CMSIS-SVD)

1.4. VHDL File Hierarchy

All required VHDL hardware source files are located in the project’s rtl/core folder.

VHDL Library
All core VHDL files from the list below have to be assigned to a new library named neorv32.
Compilation Order
See section File-List Files for more information.
RTL File List and Hierarchy (in alphabetical order)
neorv32_top.vhd                 - NEORV32 PROCESSOR/SOC TOP ENTITY
│
├neorv32_cpu.vhd                - NEORV32 CPU TOP ENTITY
│├neorv32_cpu_alu.vhd           - Arithmetic/logic unit
││├neorv32_cpu_cp_bitmanip.vhd  - Bit-manipulation co-processor (B ext.)
││├neorv32_cpu_cp_cfu.vhd       - Custom instructions co-processor (Zxcfu ext.)
││├neorv32_cpu_cp_cond.vhd      - Integer conditional co-processor (Zicond ext.)
││├neorv32_cpu_cp_crypto.vhd    - Scalar cryptographic co-processor (Zk*/Zbk* ext.)
││├neorv32_cpu_cp_fpu.vhd       - Floating-point co-processor (Zfinx ext.)
││├neorv32_cpu_cp_muldiv.vhd    - Mul/Div co-processor (M ext.)
││└neorv32_cpu_cp_shifter.vhd   - Bit-shift co-processor (base ISA)
│├neorv32_cpu_control.vhd       - CPU control, exception system and CSRs
││└neorv32_cpu_decompressor.vhd - Compressed instructions decoder (C ext.)
│├neorv32_cpu_lsu.vhd           - Load/store unit
│├neorv32_cpu_pmp.vhd           - Physical memory protection unit (Smpmp ext.)
│└neorv32_cpu_regfile.vhd       - Data register file
│
├neorv32_boot_rom.vhd           - Bootloader ROM
│└neorv32_bootloader_image.vhd  - Bootloader ROM memory image (package)
├neorv32_bus.vhd                - SoC bus infrastructure modules
├neorv32_cache.vhd              - Generic cache module
├neorv32_cfs.vhd                - Custom functions subsystem
├neorv32_clockgate.vhd          - Generic clock gating switch
├neorv32_crc.vhd                - Cyclic redundancy check unit
├neorv32_debug_dm.vhd           - on-chip debugger: debug module
├neorv32_debug_auth.vhd         - on-chip debugger: authentication module
├neorv32_debug_dtm.vhd          - on-chip debugger: debug transfer module
├neorv32_dma.vhd                - Direct memory access controller
├neorv32_dmem.vhd               - Generic processor-internal data memory
├neorv32_fifo.vhd               - Generic FIFO component
├neorv32_gpio.vhd               - General purpose input/output port unit
├neorv32_gptmr.vhd              - General purpose 32-bit timer
├neorv32_imem.vhd               - Generic processor-internal instruction memory
│└neorv32_application_image.vhd - IMEM application initialization image (package)
├neorv32_mtime.vhd              - Machine system timer
├neorv32_neoled.vhd             - NeoPixel (TM) compatible smart LED interface
├neorv32_onewire.vhd            - One-Wire serial interface controller
├neorv32_package.vhd            - Main VHDL package file
├neorv32_pwm.vhd                - Pulse-width modulation controller
├neorv32_sdi.vhd                - Serial data interface controller (SPI device)
├neorv32_slink.vhd              - Stream link interface
├neorv32_spi.vhd                - Serial peripheral interface controller (SPI host)
├neorv32_sys.vhd                - System infrastructure modules
├neorv32_sysinfo.vhd            - System configuration information memory
├neorv32_trng.vhd               - True random number generator
├neorv32_twi.vhd                - Two wire serial interface controller
├neorv32_uart.vhd               - Universal async. receiver/transmitter
├neorv32_wdt.vhd                - Watchdog timer
├neorv32_xbus.vhd               - External (Wishbone) bus interface gateways
├neorv32_xip.vhd                - Execute in place module
└neorv32_xirq.vhd               - External interrupt controller
Replacing Modules for Customization or Optimization
Any module of the core can be replaced by the user for customization purpose. For example, the default IMEM and DMEM modules as well as the CPU’s register file can be replaced by technology-specific primitives to optimize energy, speed and area utilization. The module, which are dedicated for customization, i.e. CFS and CFU can be replaced by user-defined modules to implement application-specific functionality.

1.4.1. File-List Files

Most of the RTL sources use entity instantiation. Hence, the RTL compile order might be relevant (depending on the synthesis/simulation tool. Therefore, two file-list files are provided in the rtl folder that list all required HDL files for the CPU core and for the entire processor and also represent their recommended compile order. These file-list files can be consumed by EDA tools to simplify project setup.

  • file_list_cpu.f - HDL files and compile order for the CPU core; top module: neorv32_cpu

  • file_list_soc.f - HDL files and compile order for the entire processor/SoC; top module: neorv32_top

A simple bash script generate_file_lists.sh is provided for regenerating the file-lists (using GHDL’s elaborate command). This script can also be invoked using the default application makefile (see Makefile Targets).

By default, the file-list files include a placeholder in the path of each included hardware source file. These placeholders need to be replaced by the actual path before being used. Example:

  • default: NEORV32_RTL_PATH_PLACEHOLDER/core/neorv32_package.vhd

  • adjusted: path/to/neorv32/rtl/core/neorv32_package.vhd

Listing 1. Example: Processing the File-List Files in a Makefile
NEORV32_HOME = path/to/neorv32 (1)
NEORV32_SOC_FILE = $(shell cat $(NEORV32_HOME)/rtl/file_list_soc.f) (2)
NEORV32_SOC_SRCS = $(subst NEORV32_RTL_PATH_PLACEHOLDER, $(NEORV32_HOME)/rtl, $(NEORV32_SOC_FILE))) (3)
1 Path to the NEORV32 home folder (i.e. the root folder of the GitHub repository).
2 Load the content of the file_list_soc.f file-list into a new variable NEORV32_SOC_FILE.
3 Substitute the file-list file’s path placeholder “NEORV32_RTL_PATH_PLACEHOLDER” by the actual path.
Listing 2. Example: Processing the File-List Files in a TCL Script
set file_list_file [read [open "$neorv32_home/rtl/file_list_soc.f" r]]
set file_list [string map [list "NEORV32_RTL_PATH_PLACEHOLDER" "$neorv32_home/rtl"] $file_list_file]
puts "NEORV32 source files:"
puts $file_list
File-List Usage Examples
The provided file-list files are used by the GHDL-based simple simulation setup (sim/ghdl.setup.sh) as well as by the Vivado IP packager script (rtl/system_integration/neorv32_vivado_ip.tcl).

1.5. VHDL Coding Style

  • The entire processor including the CPU core is written in platform-/technology-independent VHDL. The code makes minimal use of VHDL 2008 features to provide compatibility even for older EDA tools.

  • A single package / library file (neorv32_package.vhd) is used to provide global defines and helper functions. The specific user-defined configuration is done entirely by the generics of the top entity.

  • Internally, the generics are checked to ensure a correct configuration. Asserts and "sanity checks" are used to inform the user about the actual processor configuration and potential illegal setting.

  • The code uses entity instation for all internal modules. However, if several "submodules" are specified within the same file component instantiation is used for those.

  • When instantiating the processor top module (neorv32_top.vhd) in a custom design either entity instantiation or component instantiation can be used as the NEORV32 package file / library already provides an according component declaration.

Verilog Version
A GHDL-generated all-Verilog version of the processor is available at https://github.com/stnolting/neorv32-verilog. The provided setup generates a synthesizable Verilog netlist for a custom processor configuration.

1.6. FPGA Implementation Results

This section shows exemplary FPGA implementation results for the NEORV32 CPU and NEORV32 Processor modules.

The results are generated by manual synthesis runs. Hence, they might not represent the latest version of the processor.

CPU

HW version:

1.7.8.5

Top entity:

rtl/core/neorv32_cpu.vhd

FPGA:

Intel Cyclone IV E EP4CE22F17C6

Toolchain:

Quartus Prime Lite 21.1

Constraints:

no timing constraints, "balanced optimization", fmax from "Slow 1200mV 0C Model"

CPU ISA Configuration LEs FFs MEM bits DSPs fmax

rv32i_Zicsr

1223

607

1024

0

130 MHz

rv32i_Zicsr_Zicntr

1578

773

1024

0

130 MHz

rv32im_Zicsr_Zicntr

2087

983

1024

0

130 MHz

rv32imc_Zicsr_Zicntr

2338

992

1024

0

130 MHz

rv32imcb_Zicsr_Zicntr

3175

1247

1024

0

130 MHz

rv32imcbu_Zicsr_Zicntr

3186

1254

1024

0

130 MHz

rv32imcbu_Zicsr_Zicntr_Zifencei

3187

1254

1024

0

130 MHz

rv32imcbu_Zicsr_Zicntr_Zifencei_Zfinx

4450

1906

1024

7

123 MHz

rv32imcbu_Zicsr_Zicntr_Zifencei_Zfinx_DebugMode

4825

2018

1024

7

123 MHz

Goal-Driven Optimization
The CPU provides further options to reduce the area footprint or to increase performance. See section Processor Top Entity - Generics for more information. Also, take a look at the User Guide section Application-Specific Processor Configuration.

Processor - Modules

HW version:

1.8.6.7

Top entity:

rtl/core/neorv32_top.vhd

FPGA:

Intel Cyclone IV E EP4CE22F17C6

Toolchain:

Quartus Prime Lite 21.1

Constraints:

no timing constraints, "balanced optimization"

Table 1. Hardware utilization by processor module
Module Description LEs FFs MEM bits DSPs

BOOT ROM

Bootloader ROM (4kB)

2

2

32768

0

Bus switch (core)

SoC bus infrastructure

28

15

0

0

Bus switch (DMA)

SoC bus infrastructure

159

9

0

0

CFS

Custom functions subsystem (depends on custom design logic)

-

-

-

-

CRC

Cyclic redundancy check unit

130

117

0

0

dCACHE

Data cache (4 blocks, 64 bytes per block)

300

167

2112

0

DM

On-chip debugger - debug module

377

241

0

0

DTM

On-chip debugger - debug transfer module (JTAG)

262

220

0

0

DMA

Direct memory access controller

365

291

0

0

DMEM

Processor-internal data memory (8kB)

6

2

65536

0

Gateway

SoC bus infrastructure

215

91

0

0

GPIO

General purpose input/output ports

102

98

0

0

GPTMR

General Purpose Timer

150

105

0

0

IO Switch

SoC bus infrastructure

217

0

0

0

iCACHE

Instruction cache (2x4 blocks, 64 bytes per block)

458

296

4096

0

IMEM

Processor-internal instruction memory (16kB)

7

2

131072

0

MTIME

Machine system timer

307

166

0

0

NEOLED

Smart LED Interface (NeoPixel/WS28128) (FIFO_depth=1)

171

129

0

0

ONEWIRE

1-wire interface

105

77

0

0

PWM

Pulse_width modulation controller (4 channels)

91

81

0

0

Reservation Set

Reservation set controller for LR/SC instructions

52

33

0

0

SDI

Serial data interface

103

77

512

0

SLINK

Stream link interface (RX/TX FIFO depth=32)

96

73

2048

0

SPI

Serial peripheral interface

137

97

1024

0

SYSINFO

System configuration information memory

11

11

0

0

TRNG

True random number generator

140

108

512

0

TWI

Two-wire interface

93

64

0

0

UART0, UART1

Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter 0/1 (FIFO_depth=1)

222

142

1024

0

WDT

Watchdog timer

107

89

0

0

WISHBONE

External memory interface

122

112

0

0

XIP

Execute in place module

369

276

0

0

XIRQ

External interrupt controller (4 channels)

35

29

0

0

1.7. CPU Performance

The performance of the NEORV32 was tested and evaluated using the Core Mark CPU benchmark. The according sources can be found in the sw/example/coremark folder. The resulting CoreMark score is defined as CoreMark iterations per second per MHz.

Table 2. Configuration

HW version:

1.5.7.10

Hardware:

32kB int. IMEM, 16kB int. DMEM, no caches, 100MHz clock

CoreMark:

2000 iterations, MEM_METHOD is MEM_STACK

Compiler:

RISCV32-GCC 10.2.0 (compiled with march=rv32i mabi=ilp32)

Compiler flags:

default but with -O3, see makefile

Table 3. CoreMark results
CPU CoreMark Score CoreMarks/MHz Average CPI

small (rv32i_Zicsr_Zifencei)

33.89

0.3389

4.04

medium (rv32imc_Zicsr_Zifencei)

62.50

0.6250

5.34

performance (rv32imc_Zicsr_Zifencei + perf. options)

95.23

0.9523

3.54

The NEORV32 CPU is based on a multi-cycle architecture. Each instruction is executed in a sequence of several consecutive micro operations. The average CPI (cycles per instruction) depends on the instruction mix of a specific applications and also on the available CPU extensions. More information regarding the execution time of each implemented instruction can be found in section Instruction Sets and Extensions.

2. NEORV32 Processor (SoC)

The NEORV32 Processor is based on the NEORV32 CPU. Together with common peripheral interfaces and embedded memories it provides a RISC-V-based full-scale microcontroller-like SoC platform.

neorv32 processor
Figure 1. The NEORV32 Processor (Block Diagram)

Section Structure

Key Features

  • optional processor-internal data and instruction memories (DMEM/IMEM)

  • optional caches (I-CACHE, D-CACHE, XIP-CACHE, XBUS-CACHE)

  • optional internal bootloader (BOOTROM) with UART console & SPI flash boot option

  • optional machine system timer (MTIME), RISC-V-compatible

  • optional two independent universal asynchronous receivers and transmitters (UART0, UART1) with optional hardware flow control (RTS/CTS)

  • optional serial peripheral interface host controller (SPI) with 8 dedicated CS lines

  • optional 8-bit serial data device interface (SDI)

  • optional two wire serial interface controller (TWI), compatible to the I²C standard

  • optional general purpose parallel IO port (GPIO), 64xOut, 64xIn

  • optional 32-bit external bus interface, Wishbone b4 / AXI4-Lite compatible (XBUS)

  • optional watchdog timer (WDT)

  • optional PWM controller with up to 16 individual channels (PWM)

  • optional ring-oscillator-based true random number generator (TRNG)

  • optional custom functions subsystem for custom co-processor extensions (CFS)

  • optional NeoPixel™/WS2812-compatible smart LED interface (NEOLED)

  • optional external interrupt controller with up to 32 channels and programmable interrupt triggers (XIRQ)

  • optional general purpose 32-bit timer (GPTMR)

  • optional execute in-place module (XIP)

  • optional 1-wire serial interface controller (ONEWIRE), compatible to the 1-wire standard

  • optional autonomous direct memory access controller (DMA)

  • optional stream link interface (SLINK), AXI4-Stream compatible

  • optional cyclic redundancy check unit (CRC)

  • optional on-chip debugger with JTAG TAP (OCD)

  • optional system configuration information memory to determine hardware configuration via software (SYSINFO)

2.1. Processor Top Entity - Signals

The following table shows all interface signals of the processor top entity (rtl/core/neorv32_top.vhd). All signals are of type std_ulogic or std_ulogic_vector, respectively.

Default Values of Inputs
All optional input signals provide default values in case they are not explicitly assigned during instantiation. The weak driver strengths of VHDL ('L' and 'H') are used to model a pull-down or pull-up resistor.
Variable-Sized Ports
Some peripherals allow to configure the number of channels to-be-implemented by a generic (for example the number of PWM channels). The according input/output signals have a fixed sized regardless of the actually configured amount of channels. If less than the maximum number of channels is configured, only the LSB-aligned channels are used: in case of an input port the remaining bits/channels are left unconnected; in case of an output port the remaining bits/channels are hardwired to zero.
Tri-State Interfaces
Some interfaces (like the TWI and the 1-Wire bus) require explicit tri-state drivers in the final top module.
Input/Output Registers
By default all output signals are driven by register and all input signals are synchronized into the processor’s clock domain also using registers. However, for ASIC implementations it is recommended to add another register state to all inputs and output so the synthesis tool can insert an explicit IO (boundary) scan chain.
Table 4. NEORV32 Processor Signal List
Name Width Direction Default Description

Global Control (Processor Clocking and Processor Reset)

clk_i

1

in

none

global clock line, all registers triggering on rising edge

rstn_i

1

in

none

global reset, asynchronous, low-active

JTAG Access Port for On-Chip Debugger (OCD)

jtag_tck_i

1

in

'L'

serial clock

jtag_tdi_i

1

in

'L'

serial data input

jtag_tdo_o

1

out

-

serial data output

jtag_tms_i

1

in

'L'

mode select

Processor-External Bus Interface (XBUS)

xbus_adr_o

32

out

-

destination address

xbus_dat_o

32

out

-

read data

xbus_tag_o

3

out

-

access tag

xbus_we_o

1

out

-

write enable ('0' = read transfer)

xbus_sel_o

4

out

-

byte enable

xbus_stb_o

1

out

-

strobe

xbus_cyc_o

1

out

-

valid cycle

xbus_dat_i

32

in

'L'

write data

xbus_ack_i

1

in

'L'

transfer acknowledge

xbus_err_i

1

in

'L'

transfer error

Stream Link Interface (SLINK)

slink_rx_dat_i

32

in

'L'

RX data

slink_rx_src_i

4

in

'L'

RX source routing information

slink_rx_val_i

1

in

'L'

RX data valid

slink_rx_lst_i

1

in

'L'

RX last element of stream

slink_rx_rdy_o

1

out

-

RX ready to receive

slink_tx_dat_o

32

out

-

TX data

slink_tx_dst_o

4

out

-

TX destination routing information

slink_tx_val_o

1

out

-

TX data valid

slink_tx_lst_o

1

out

-

TX last element of stream

slink_tx_rdy_i

1

in

'L'

TX allowed to send

Execute In Place Module (XIP)

xip_csn_o

1

out

-

chip select, low-active

xip_clk_o

1

out

-

serial clock

xip_dat_i

1

in

'L'

serial data input

xip_dat_o

1

out

-

serial data output

General Purpose Input and Output Port (GPIO)

gpio_o

64

out

-

general purpose parallel output

gpio_i

64

in

'L'

general purpose parallel input

Primary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART0)

uart0_txd_o

1

out

-

serial transmitter

uart0_rxd_i

1

in

'L'

serial receiver

uart0_rts_o

1

out

-

RX ready to receive new char

uart0_cts_i

1

in

'L'

TX allowed to start sending, low-active

Secondary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART1)

uart1_txd_o

1

out

-

serial transmitter

uart1_rxd_i

1

in

'L'

serial receiver

uart1_rts_o

1

out

-

RX ready to receive new char

uart1_cts_i

1

in

'L'

TX allowed to start sending, low-active

Serial Peripheral Interface Controller (SPI)

spi_clk_o

1

out

-

controller clock line

spi_dat_o

1

out

-

serial data output

spi_dat_i

1

in

'L'

serial data input

spi_csn_o

8

out

-

select (low-active)

Serial Data Interface Controller (SDI)

sdi_clk_i

1

in

'L'

controller clock line

sdi_dat_o

1

out

-

serial data output

sdi_dat_i

1

in

'L'

serial data input

sdi_csn_i

1

in

'H'

chip select, low-active

Two-Wire Serial Interface Controller (TWI)

twi_sda_i

1

in

'H'

serial data line sense input

twi_sda_o

1

out

-

serial data line output (pull low only)

twi_scl_i

1

in

'H'

serial clock line sense input

twi_scl_o

1

out

-

serial clock line output (pull low only)

One-Wire Serial Interface Controller (ONEWIRE)

onewire_i

1

in

'H'

1-wire bus sense input

onewire_o

1

out

-

1-wire bus output (pull low only)

Pulse-Width Modulation Controller (PWM)

pwm_o

16

out

-

pulse-width modulated channels

Custom Functions Subsystem (CFS)

cfs_in_i

32

in

'L'

custom CFS input signal conduit

cfs_out_o

32

out

-

custom CFS output signal conduit

Smart LED Interface (NEOLED)

neoled_o

1

out

-

asynchronous serial data output

Machine System Timer (MTIME)

mtime_time_o

64

out

-

MTIME system time output

External Interrupt Controller (XIRQ)

xirq_i

32

in

'L'

external interrupt requests

RISC-V Machine-Mode Processor Interrupts

mtime_irq_i

1

in

'L'

machine timer interrupt (RISC-V), high-level-active; for chip-internal usage only

msw_irq_i

1

in

'L'

machine software interrupt (RISC-V), high-level-active; for chip-internal usage only

mext_irq_i

1

in

'L'

machine external interrupt (RISC-V), high-level-active; for chip-internal usage only

2.2. Processor Top Entity - Generics

This section lists all configuration generics of the NEORV32 processor top entity (rtl/neorv32_top.vhd). These generics allow to configure the system according to your needs. The generics are used to control implementation of certain CPU extensions and peripheral modules and even allow to optimize the system for certain design goals like minimal area or maximum performance.

Default Values
All optional configuration generics provide default values in case they are not explicitly assigned during instantiation.
Software Discovery of Configuration
Software can determine the actual CPU configuration via the misa and mxisa CSRs. The Soc/Processor and can be determined via the SYSINFO memory-mapped registers.
Excluded Modules and Extensions
If optional modules (like CPU extensions or peripheral devices) are not enabled the according hardware will not be synthesized at all. Hence, the disabled modules do not increase area and power requirements and do not impact timing.
Table Abbreviations
The generic type “suv(x:y)” is an abbreviation for “std_ulogic_vector(x downto y)”.
Table 5. NEORV32 Processor Generic List
Name Type Default Description

Processor Clocking

CLOCK_FREQUENCY

natural

0

The clock frequency of the processor’s clk_i input port in Hertz (Hz).

CLOCK_GATING_EN

boolean

false

Enable clock gating when CPU is in sleep mode (see sections Sleep Mode and Processor Clocking).

Core Identification

HART_ID

suv(31:0)

x"00000000"

The hart thread ID of the CPU (passed to mhartid CSR).

JEDEC_ID

suv(10:0)

"00000000000"

JEDEC ID; continuation codes plus vendor ID (passed to mvendorid CSR and to the Debug Transport Module (DTM)).

Boot Configuration

BOOT_MODE_SELECT

natural

0

Boot mode select; see Boot Configuration.

BOOT_ADDR_CUSTOM

suv(31:0)

x"00000000"

Custom CPU boot address (available if BOOT_MODE_SELECT = 1).

On-Chip Debugger (OCD)

OCD_EN

boolean

false

Implement the on-chip debugger and the CPU debug mode.

OCD_AUTHENTICATION

boolean

false

Implement Debug Authentication module.

CPU Instruction Sets and Extensions

RISCV_ISA_C

boolean

false

Enable C ISA Extension (compressed instructions).

RISCV_ISA_E

boolean

false

Enable E ISA Extension (reduced register file size).

RISCV_ISA_M

boolean

false

Enable M ISA Extension (hardware-based integer multiplication and division).

RISCV_ISA_U

boolean

false

Enable U ISA Extension (less-privileged user mode).

RISCV_ISA_Zalrsc

boolean

false

Enable Zalrsc ISA Extension (atomic reservation-set operations).

RISCV_ISA_Zba

boolean

false

Enable Zba ISA Extension (shifted-add bit-manipulation instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zbb

boolean

false

Enable Zbb ISA Extension (basic bit-manipulation instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zbkb

boolean

false

Enable Zbkb ISA Extension (scalar cryptography bit manipulation instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zbkc

boolean

false

Enable Zbkc ISA Extension (scalar cryptography carry-less multiplication instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zbkx

boolean

false

Enable Zbkx ISA Extension (scalar cryptography crossbar permutations).

RISCV_ISA_Zbs

boolean

false

Enable Zbs ISA Extension (single-bit bit-manipulation instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zfinx

boolean

false

Enable Zfinx ISA Extension (single-precision floating-point unit).

RISCV_ISA_Zicntr

boolean

true

Enable Zicntr ISA Extension (CPU base counters).

RISCV_ISA_Zicond

boolean

false

Enable Zicond ISA Extension (integer conditional instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zihpm

boolean

false

Enable Zihpm ISA Extension (hardware performance monitors).

RISCV_ISA_Zknd

boolean

false

Enable Zknd ISA Extension (scalar cryptography NIST AES decryption instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zkne

boolean

false

Enable Zkne ISA Extension (scalar cryptography NIST AES encryption instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zknh

boolean

false

Enable Zknh ISA Extension (scalar cryptography NIST hash instructions).

RISCV_ISA_Zksed

boolean

false

Enable Zksed ISA Extension (scalar cryptography ShangMi block cyphers).

RISCV_ISA_Zksh

boolean

false

Enable Zksh ISA Extension (scalar cryptography ShangMi hash functions).

RISCV_ISA_Zmmul

boolean

false

Enable Zmmul - ISA Extension (hardware-based integer multiplication).

RISCV_ISA_Zxcfu

boolean

false

Enable NEORV32-specific Zxcfu ISA Extension (custom RISC-V instructions).

CPU Architecture Tuning Options

FAST_MUL_EN

boolean

false

Implement fast but large full-parallel multipliers (trying to infer DSP blocks); see section CPU Arithmetic Logic Unit.

FAST_SHIFT_EN

boolean

false

Implement fast but large full-parallel barrel shifters; see section CPU Arithmetic Logic Unit.

REGFILE_HW_RST

boolean

false

Implement full hardware reset for register file (use individual FFs instead of BRAM); see section CPU Register File.

Physical Memory Protection (Smpmp ISA Extension)

PMP_NUM_REGIONS

natural

0

Number of implemented PMP regions (0..16).

PMP_MIN_GRANULARITY

natural

4

Minimal region granularity in bytes. Has to be a power of two, min 4.

PMP_TOR_MODE_EN

boolean

true

Implement support for top-of-region (TOR) mode.

PMP_NAP_MODE_EN

boolean

true

Implement support for naturally-aligned power-of-two (NAPOT & NA4) modes.

Hardware Performance Monitors (Zihpm ISA Extension)

HPM_NUM_CNTS

natural

0

Number of implemented hardware performance monitor counters (0..13).

HPM_CNT_WIDTH

natural

40

Total LSB-aligned size of each HPM counter. Min 0, max 64.

Internal Instruction Memory (IMEM)

MEM_INT_IMEM_EN

boolean

false

Implement the processor-internal instruction memory.

MEM_INT_IMEM_SIZE

natural

16*1024

Size in bytes of the processor internal instruction memory (use a power of 2).

Internal Data Memory (DMEM)

MEM_INT_DMEM_EN

boolean

false

Implement the processor-internal data memory.

MEM_INT_DMEM_SIZE

natural

8*1024

Size in bytes of the processor-internal data memory (use a power of 2).

Processor-Internal Instruction Cache (iCACHE)

ICACHE_EN

boolean

false

Implement the instruction cache.

ICACHE_NUM_BLOCKS

natural

4

Number of blocks ("lines") Has to be a power of two.

ICACHE_BLOCK_SIZE

natural

64

Size in bytes of each block. Has to be a power of two.

Processor-Internal Data Cache (dCACHE)

DCACHE_EN

boolean

false

Implement the data cache.

DCACHE_NUM_BLOCKS

natural

4

Number of blocks ("lines"). Has to be a power of two.

DCACHE_BLOCK_SIZE

natural

64

Size in bytes of each block. Has to be a power of two.

Processor-External Bus Interface (XBUS) (Wishbone b4 protocol)

XBUS_EN

boolean

false

Implement the external bus interface.

XBUS_TIMEOUT

natural

255

Clock cycles after which a pending external bus access will auto-terminate and raise a bus fault exception.

XBUS_REGSTAGE_EN

boolean

false

Implement XBUS register stages to ease timing closure.

XBUS_CACHE_EN

boolean

false

Implement the external bus cache.

XBUS_CACHE_NUM_BLOCKS

natural

64

Number of blocks ("lines"). Has to be a power of two.

XBUS_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE

natural

32

Size in bytes of each block. Has to be a power of two.

Execute In Place Module (XIP)

XIP_EN

boolean

false

Implement the execute in-place module.

XIP_CACHE_EN

boolean

false

Implement XIP cache.

XIP_CACHE_NUM_BLOCKS

natural

8

Number of blocks in XIP cache. Has to be a power of two.

XIP_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE

natural

256

Number of bytes per XIP cache block. Has to be a power of two, min 4.

External Interrupt Controller (XIRQ)

XIRQ_NUM_CH

natural

0

Number of channels of the external interrupt controller. Valid values are 0..32.

Peripheral/IO Modules

IO_DISABLE_SYSINFO

boolean

false

Disable System Configuration Information Memory (SYSINFO) module; ⚠️ not recommended - for advanced users only!

IO_GPIO_NUM

natural

0

Number of general purpose input/output pairs of the General Purpose Input and Output Port (GPIO).

IO_MTIME_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Machine System Timer (MTIME).

IO_UART0_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Primary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART0).

IO_UART0_RX_FIFO

natural

1

UART0 RX FIFO depth, has to be a power of two, minimum value is 1, max 32768.

IO_UART0_TX_FIFO

natural

1

UART0 TX FIFO depth, has to be a power of two, minimum value is 1, max 32768.

IO_UART1_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Secondary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART1).

IO_UART1_RX_FIFO

natural

1

UART1 RX FIFO depth, has to be a power of two, minimum value is 1, max 32768.

IO_UART1_TX_FIFO

natural

1

UART1 TX FIFO depth, has to be a power of two, minimum value is 1, max 32768.

IO_SPI_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Serial Peripheral Interface Controller (SPI).

IO_SPI_FIFO

natural

1

Depth of the Serial Peripheral Interface Controller (SPI) FIFO. Has to be a power of two, min 1, max 32768.

IO_SDI_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Serial Data Interface Controller (SDI).

IO_SDI_FIFO

natural

1

Depth of the Serial Data Interface Controller (SDI) FIFO. Has to be a power of two, min 1, max 32768.

IO_TWI_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Two-Wire Serial Interface Controller (TWI).

IO_TWI_FIFO

natural

1

Depth of the Two-Wire Serial Interface Controller (TWI) FIFO. Has to be a power of two, min 1, max 32768.

IO_PWM_NUM_CH

natural

0

Number of channels of the Pulse-Width Modulation Controller (PWM) to implement (0..16).

IO_WDT_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Watchdog Timer (WDT).

IO_TRNG_EN

boolean

false

Implement the True Random-Number Generator (TRNG).

IO_TRNG_FIFO

natural

1

Depth of the TRNG data FIFO. Has to be a power of two, min 1, max 32768.

IO_CFS_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Custom Functions Subsystem (CFS).

IO_CFS_CONFIG

suv(31:0)

x"00000000"

"Conduit" generic to pass user-defined flags to the Custom Functions Subsystem (CFS).

IO_CFS_IN_SIZE

natural

32

Size of the Custom Functions Subsystem (CFS) input signal conduit (cfs_in_i).

IO_CFS_OUT_SIZE

natural

32

Size of the Custom Functions Subsystem (CFS) output signal conduit (cfs_out_o).

IO_NEOLED_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Smart LED Interface (NEOLED).

IO_NEOLED_TX_FIFO

natural

1

TX FIFO depth of the the Smart LED Interface (NEOLED). Has to be a power of two, min 1, max 32768.

IO_GPTMR_EN

boolean

false

Implement the General Purpose Timer (GPTMR).

IO_ONEWIRE_EN

boolean

false

Implement the One-Wire Serial Interface Controller (ONEWIRE).

IO_DMA_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Direct Memory Access Controller (DMA).

IO_SLINK_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Stream Link Interface (SLINK).

IO_SLINK_RX_FIFO

natural

1

SLINK RX FIFO depth, has to be a power of two, minimum value is 1, max 32768.

IO_SLINK_TX_FIFO

natural

1

SLINK TX FIFO depth, has to be a power of two, minimum value is 1, max 32768.

IO_CRC_EN

boolean

false

Implement the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) unit.

2.3. Processor Clocking

The processor is implemented as fully-synchronous logic design using a single clock domain that is driven entirely by the top’s clk_i signal. This clock signal is used by all internal registers and memories. All of them trigger on the rising edge of this clock signal - the only exception it the default Clock Gating module. External "clocks" like the OCD’s JTAG clock or the SDI’s serial clock are synchronized into the processor’s clock domain before being used as "general logic signal" (and not as a dedicated clock).

2.3.1. Clock Gating

The single clock domain of the processor can be split into an always-on clock domain and a switchable clock domain. The switchable clock domain is used to clock the CPU core, the CPU’s bus switch and - if implemented - the caches. This domain can be deactivated to reduce power consumption. The always-on clock domain is used to clock all other processor modules like peripherals, memories and IO devices. Hence, these modules can continue operation (e.g. a timer keeps running) even if the CPU is shut down.

The splitting into two clock domain is enabled by the CLOCK_GATING_EN generic (Processor Top Entity - Generics). When enabled, a generic clock switching gate is added to decouple the switchable clock from the always-on clock domain (VHDL file neorv32_clockgate.vhd). Whenever the CPU enters Sleep Mode the CPU clock domain ist shut down.

Clock Switch Hardware
By default, a generic clock gate is used (rtl/core/neorv32_clockgate.vhd) to shut down the CPU clock. Especially for FPGA setups it is highly recommended to replace this default version by a technology-specific primitive or macro wrapper to improve efficiency (clock skew, global clock tree usage, etc.).

2.3.2. Peripheral Clocks

Many processor modules like the UARTs or the timers provide a programmable time base for operations. In order to simplify the hardware, the processor implements a global "clock generator" (neorv32_sys.vhd) that provides single-cycle clock enables for certain frequencies which are derived from the main clock. These clock enable signals are synchronous to the system’s main clock. The processor modules can use these enables for sub-main-clock operations while still providing a single clock domain only.

In total, 8 sub-main-clock signals are available. All processor modules, which feature a time-based configuration, provide a programmable three-bit prescaler select in their control register to select one of the 8 available clocks. The mapping of the prescaler select bits to the according clock source is shown in the table below. Here, f represents the processor main clock from the top entity’s clk_i signal.

Prescaler bits:

0b000

0b001

0b010

0b011

0b100

0b101

0b110

0b111

Resulting clock:

f/2

f/4

f/8

f/64

f/128

f/1024

f/2048

f/4096

Power Saving
If no peripheral modules requires a clock signal from the internal clock generator (all according modules are disabled by clearing the enable bit in the according module’s control register) the generator is automatically deactivated to reduce dynamic power consumption.

2.4. Processor Reset

The NEORV32 processor includes a central reset sequencer (neorv32_sys.vhd) that handles all reset requests and controls the internal reset nets. The processor-wide reset (aka "system reset") can be triggered by any of the following sources:

Processor Reset Signal
Make sure to connect the processor’s reset signal rstn_i to a valid reset source (a button, the "locked" signal of a PLL, a dedicated reset controller, etc.).
Reset Cause
The actual reset cause can be determined via the Watchdog Timer (WDT).

If any of these sources triggers a reset, the internal system-wide reset will be active for at least 4 clock cycles ensuring a valid reset of the entire processor. This system reset is asserted asynchronoulsy if triggered by the external rstn_i signal and is asserted synchronously if triggered by an internal reset source. However, the system reset is always de-asserted synchronously at the next rising clock edge.

Internally, all registers that are not meant for mapping to blockRAM (like the register file) do provide a dedicated and low-active asynchronous hardware reset. This asynchronous reset ensures that the entire processor logic is reset to a defined state even if the main clock is not operational yet.

2.5. Processor Interrupts

The NEORV32 Processor provides several interrupt request signals (IRQs) for custom platform use.

Trigger Type
All interrupt request lines are level-triggered and high-active. Once set, the signal should remain high until the interrupt request is explicitly acknowledged (e.g. writing to a memory-mapped register).

2.5.1. RISC-V Standard Interrupts

The processor setup features the standard machine-level RISC-V interrupt lines for "machine timer interrupt", "machine software interrupt" and "machine external interrupt". Their usage is defined by the RISC-V privileged architecture specifications. However, bare-metal system can also repurpose these interrupts. See CPU section Traps, Exceptions and Interrupts for more information.

Top signal Description

mtime_irq_i

Machine timer interrupt from processor-external MTIME unit (MTI). This IRQ is only available if the processor-internal Machine System Timer (MTIME) unit is not implemented.

msw_irq_i

Machine software interrupt (MSI). This interrupt is used for inter-processor interrupts in multi-core systems. However, it can also be used for any custom purpose.

mext_irq_i

Machine external interrupt (MEI). This interrupt is used for any processor-external interrupt source (like a platform interrupt controller).

2.5.2. NEORV32-Specific Fast Interrupt Requests

As part of the NEORV32-specific CPU extensions, the processor core features 16 fast interrupt request signals (FIRQ0 to FIRQ15) providing dedicated bits in the mip and mie CSRs and custom mcause trap codes. The FIRQ signals are reserved for processor-internal modules only (for example for the communication interfaces to signal "available incoming data" or "ready to send new data").

The mapping of the 16 FIRQ channels to the according processor-internal modules is shown in the following table (the channel number also corresponds to the according FIRQ priority: 0 = highest, 15 = lowest):

Table 6. NEORV32 Fast Interrupt Request (FIRQ) Mapping
Channel Source Description

0

TRNG

TRNG data available interrupt

1

CFS

Custom functions subsystem (CFS) interrupt (user-defined)

2

UART0

UART0 RX FIFO level interrupt

3

UART0

UART0 TX FIFO level interrupt

4

UART1

UART1 RX FIFO level interrupt

5

UART1

UART1 TX FIFO level interrupt

6

SPI

SPI FIFO level interrupt

7

TWI

TWI FIFO level interrupt

8

XIRQ

External interrupt controller interrupt

9

NEOLED

NEOLED TX FIFO level interrupt

10

DMA

DMA transfer done interrupt

11

SDI

SDI FIFO level interrupt

12

GPTMR

General purpose timer interrupt

13

ONEWIRE

1-wire idle interrupt

14

SLINK

SLINK RX FIFO level interrupt

15

SLINK

SLINK TX FIFO level interrupt

2.6. Address Space

As a 32-bit architecture the NEORV32 can access a 4GB physical address space. By default, this address space is split into six main regions. Each region provides specific physical memory attributes ("PMAs") that define the access capabilities (rwxac; r = read permission, w = write permission, x - execute permission, a = atomic access support, c = cached CPU access, p = privileged access only).

900
Figure 2. NEORV32 Processor Address Space (Default Configuration)
The "Void" (Unmapped Addresses)
All accesses to "unmapped" addresses (= "void") are redirected to the Processor-External Bus Interface (XBUS). For example, if the internal IMEM is disabled, the accesses to the entire address space between 0x00000000 and 0x7FFFFFFF are converted into XBUS requests. If the XBUS interface is not enabled any access to the void will raise a bus error exception.
Table 7. Main Address Regions
# Region PMAs Description

1

Internal IMEM address space

rwxac-

For instructions (=code) and constants; mapped to the internal Instruction Memory (IMEM).

2

Internal DMEM address space

rwxac-

For application runtime data (heap, stack, etc.); mapped to the internal Data Memory (DMEM)).

3

Memory-mapped XIP flash

r-xac-

Memory-mapped access to the Execute In Place Module (XIP) SPI flash.

4

Bootloader address space

r-xa-p

Read-only memory for the internal Bootloader ROM (BOOTROM) containing the default Bootloader.

5

IO/peripheral address space

rwxa-p

Processor-internal peripherals / IO devices.

6

The "void"

rwxac-

Unmapped address space. All accesses to this region(s) are redirected to the Processor-External Bus Interface (XBUS) (if implemented).

Privileged IO and BOOTROM Access Only
Only privileged accesses (M-mode) to the IO/peripheral and bootloader address spaces are allowed. If an unprivileged application tries to access this address space a bus access error exception is raised.
Custom PMAs
Custom physical memory attributes enforced by the CPU’s physcial memory protection (Smpmp ISA Extension) can be used to further constrain the physical memory attributes.

2.6.1. Bus System

The CPU can access all of the 32-bit address space from the instruction fetch interface and also from the data access interface. Both CPU interfaces can be equipped with optional caches (Processor-Internal Data Cache (dCACHE) and Processor-Internal Instruction Cache (iCACHE)). The two CPU interfaces are multiplexed by a simple bus switch into a single processor-internal bus. Optionally, this bus is further switched by another instance of the bus switch so the Direct Memory Access Controller (DMA) controller can also access the entire address space. Accesses via the resulting SoC bus are split by the Bus Gateway that redirects accesses to the according main address regions (see table above). Accesses to the processor-internal IO/peripheral devices are further redirected via a dedicated IO Switch.

1300
Figure 3. Processor-Internal Bus Architecture
Bus System Infrastructure
The components of the processor’s bus system infrastructure are located in rtl/core/neorv32_bus.vhd.
Bus Interface
See sections CPU Architecture and Bus Interface for more information regarding the CPU bus accesses.

2.6.2. Bus Gateway

The central bus gateway serves two purposes: redirect core accesses to the according modules (e.g. memory accesses vs. memory-mapped IO accesses) and monitor all bus transactions. The redirection of access request is based on a customizable memory map implemented via VHDL constants in the main package file (rtl/core/neorv323_package.vhd):

Listing 3. Main Address Regions Configuration in the VHDL Package File
-- Main Address Regions ---
constant mem_imem_base_c : std_ulogic_vector(31 downto 0) := x"00000000";
constant mem_dmem_base_c : std_ulogic_vector(31 downto 0) := x"80000000";
constant mem_xip_base_c  : std_ulogic_vector(31 downto 0) := x"e0000000";
constant mem_xip_size_c  : natural := 256*1024*1024;
constant mem_boot_base_c : std_ulogic_vector(31 downto 0) := x"ffffc000";
constant mem_boot_size_c : natural := 8*1024;
constant mem_io_base_c   : std_ulogic_vector(31 downto 0) := x"ffffe000";
constant mem_io_size_c   : natural := 8*1024;

Besides the delegation of bus requests the gateway also implements a bus monitor (aka "the bus keeper") that tracks all active bus transactions to ensure safe and deterministic operations.

Whenever a memory-mapped device is accessed (a real memory, a memory-mapped IO or some processor-external module) the bus monitor starts an internal timer. The accessed module has to respond ("ACK") to the bus request within a specific time window. This time window is defined by a global constant in the processor’s VHDL package file (rtl/core/neorv323_package.vhd).

Listing 4. Internal Bus Timeout Configuration
constant bus_timeout_c : natural := 15;

This constant defines the maximum number of cycles after which a non-responding bus request (i.e. no ack and no err signal) will time out raising a bus access fault exception. For example this can happen when accessing "address space holes" - addresses that are not mapped to any physical module. The resulting exception type corresponds to the according access type, i.e. instruction fetch access exception, load access exception or store access exception.

XIP Timeout
Accesses to the memory-mapped XIP flash (via the Execute In Place Module (XIP)) will never time out.
External Bus Interface Timeout
Accesses that are delegated to the external bus interface have a different maximum timeout value that is defined by an explicit specific processor generic. See section Processor-External Bus Interface (XBUS) for more information.

2.6.3. Reservation Set Controller

The reservation set controller is responsible for handling the load-reservate and store-conditional bus transaction that are triggered by the lr.w (LR) and sc.w (SC) instructions from the CPU’s Zalrsc ISA Extension.

A "reservation" defines an address or address range that provides a guarding mechanism to support atomic accesses. A new reservation is registered by the LR instruction. The address provided by this instruction defines the memory location that is now monitored for atomic accesses. The according SC instruction evaluates the state of this reservation. If the reservation is still valid the write access triggered by the SC instruction is finally executed and the instruction return a "success" state (rd = 0). If the reservation has been invalidated the SC instruction will not write to memory and will return a "failed" state (rd = 1).

Reservation Set(s) and Granule
The reservation set controller supports only a single global reservation set with a word-aligned 4-byte granule.

The reservation is invalidated if…​

  • an SC instruction is executed that accesses an address outside of the reservation set of the previous LR instruction. This SC instruction will fail (not writing to memory).

  • an SC instruction is executed that accesses an address inside of the reservation set of the previous LR instruction. This SC instruction will succeed (finally writing to memory).

  • a normal store operation accesses an address inside of the current reservation set (by the CPU or by the DMA).

  • a hardware reset is triggered.

Consecutive LR Instructions
If an LR instruction is followed by another LR instruction the reservation set of the former one is overridden by the reservation set of the latter one.
Bus Access Errors
If the LR operation causes a bus access error (raising a load access exception) the reservation is registered anyway. If the SC operation causes a bus access error (raising a store access exception) an already registered reservation set is invalidated anyway.
Strong Semantic
The LR/SC mechanism follows the strong semantic approach: the LR/SC instruction pair fails only if there is a write access to the referenced memory location between the LR and SC instructions (by the CPU itself or by the DMA). Context changes, interrupts, traps, etc. do not effect nor invalidate the reservation state at all.
Physical Memory Attributes
The reservation set can be set for any address (only constrained by the configured granularity). This also includes cached memory, memory-mapped IO devices and processor-external address spaces.

Bus transactions triggered by the LR instruction register a new reservation set and are delegated to the adressed memory/device. Bus transactions triggered by the SC remove a reservation set and are forwarded to the adressed memory/device only if the SC operations succeeds. Otherwise, the access request is not forwarded and a local ACK is generated to terminate the bus transaction.

LR/SC Bus Protocol
More information regarding the LR/SC bus transactions and the the according protocol can be found in section Bus Interface / Atomic Accesses.
Cache Coherency
Atomic operations always bypass the cache using direct/uncached accesses. Care must be taken to maintain data cache coherency (e.g. by using the fence instruction).

2.6.4. IO Switch

The IO switch further decodes the address when accessing the processor-internal IO/peripheral devices and forwards the access request to the according module. Note that a total address space size of 256 bytes is assigned to each IO module in order to simplify address decoding. The IO-specific address map is also defined in the main VHDL package file (rtl/core/neorv323_package.vhd).

Listing 5. Exemplary Cut-Out from the IO Address Map
-- IO Address Map --
constant iodev_size_c    : natural := 256; -- size of a single IO device (bytes)
constant base_io_cfs_c   : std_ulogic_vector(31 downto 0) := x"ffffeb00";
constant base_io_slink_c : std_ulogic_vector(31 downto 0) := x"ffffec00";
constant base_io_dma_c   : std_ulogic_vector(31 downto 0) := x"ffffed00";
IO Access Latency
In order to shorten the critical path of the IO system, the IO switch contain a partial register stage that buffers the address bus. Hence, accesses to the processor-internal IO region requires an additional clock cycle to complete.

2.7. Boot Configuration

The NEORV32 processor provides some pre-defined boot configurations to adjust system start-up to the requirements of the application. The actual boot configuration is defined by the BOOT_MODE_SELECT generic (see Processor Top Entity - Generics).

Table 8. NEORV32 Boot Configurations
BOOT_MODE_SELECT Name Boot address Description

0 (default)

Bootloader

Base of internal BOOTROM

Implement the processor-internal Bootloader ROM (BOOTROM) as pre-initialized ROM and boot from there.

1

Custom Address

BOOT_ADDR_CUSTOM generic

Start booting at user-defined address (BOOT_ADDR_CUSTOM top generic).

2

IMEM Image

Base of internal IMEM

Implement the processor-internal Instruction Memory (IMEM) as pre-initialized ROM and boot from there.

2.7.1. Booting via Bootloader

This is the most common and thus, the default boot configuration. When selected, the processor-internal Bootloader ROM (BOOTROM) is enabled. This ROM contains the executable image (rtl/core/neorv32_bootloader_image.vhd) of the default NEORV32 Bootloader that will be executed right after reset. The bootloader provides an interactive user console for executable upload as well as an automatic boot-configuration targeting external (SPI) memories.

If the processor-internal Instruction Memory (IMEM) is enabled it will be implemented as blank RAM.

2.7.2. Boot from Custom Address

This is the most flexible boot configuration as it allows the user to specify a custom boot address via the BOOT_ADDR_CUSTOM generic. Note that this address has to be aligned to 4-byte boundary. The processor will start executing from the defined address right after reset. For example, this boot configuration ca be used to execute a custom bootloader from a memory that is attached via the Processor-External Bus Interface (XBUS).

The Bootloader ROM (BOOTROM) is not enabled / implement at all. If the processor-internal Instruction Memory (IMEM) is enabled it will be implemented as blank RAM.

2.7.3. Boot IMEM Image

This configuration will implement the Instruction Memory (IMEM) as pre-initialized read-only memory (ROM). The ROM is initialized during synthesis with the according application image file (rtl/core/neorv32_application_image.vhd). After reset, the CPU will directly start executing this image. Since the IMEM is implemented as ROM, the executable cannot be altered at runtime at all.

The Bootloader ROM (BOOTROM) is not enabled / implement at all.

Internal IMEM is Required
This boot configuration requires the IMEM to be enabled (MEM_INT_IMEM_EN = true).
Simulation Setup
This boot configuration is handy for simulations as the application software is executed right away without the need for an explicit initialization / executable upload.

2.8. Processor-Internal Modules

Privileged IO Access Only
Only privileged accesses (M-mode) to the IO/peripheral modules are allowed. If an unprivileged application tries to access this address space a bus access error exception is raised.
Full-Word Write Accesses Only
All peripheral/IO devices should only be written in full-word mode (i.e. 32-bit). Byte or half-word (8/16-bit) write accesses might cause undefined behavior.
Writing to Read-Only Registers
Unless otherwise specified, writing to registers that are listed as read-only does not trigger an exception. The write access is simply ignored by the corresponding hardware module.
IO Module’s Address Space
Each peripheral/IO module occupies an address space of 256 bytes (64 words). Most devices do not fully utilize this address space and will simply mirror the available interface registers across the entire 256 bytes of address space.
Unimplemented Modules / Address Holes
When accessing an IO device that hast not been implemented (disabled via the according generic) or when accessing an address that is actually unused, a load/store access fault exception is raised.
Module Interrupts
Several peripheral/IO devices provide some kind of interrupt. These interrupts are mapped to the CPU’s Custom Fast Interrupt Request Lines. See section Processor Interrupts for more information.
CMSIS System Description View (SVD)
A CMSIS-compatible System View Description (SVD) file including all peripherals is available in sw/svd.

2.8.1. Instruction Memory (IMEM)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_imem.vhd

default platform-agnostic instruction memory (RAM or ROM)

neorv32_application_image.vhd

initialization image (a VHDL package)

Software driver files:

none

implicitly used

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

MEM_INT_IMEM_EN

implement processor-internal IMEM when true

MEM_INT_IMEM_SIZE

IMEM size in bytes (use a power of 2)

BOOT_MODE_SELECT

implement IMEM as ROM when BOOT_MODE_SELECT = 2; see Boot Configuration

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

none / read-only if INT_BOOTLOADER_EN = true

Overview

Implementation of the processor-internal instruction memory is enabled by the processor’s MEM_INT_IMEM_EN generic. The total memory size in bytes is defined via the MEM_INT_IMEM_SIZE generic. Note that this size should be a power of two to optimize physical implementation. If enabled, the IMEM is mapped to base address 0x00000000 (see section Address Space).

By default the IMEM is implemented as true RAM so the content can be modified during run time. This is required when using the Bootloader (or the [_on_chip_debugger]) so it can update the content of the IMEM at any time.

Alternatively, the IMEM can be implemented as pre-initialized read-only memory (ROM), so the processor can directly boot from it after reset. This option is configured via the BOOT_MODE_SELECT generic. See section Boot Configuration for more information. The initialization image is embedded into the bitstream during synthesis. The software framework provides an option to generate and override the default VHDL initialization file rtl/core/neorv32_application_image.vhd, which is automatically inserted into the IMEM (see Makefile Targets. If the IMEM is implemented as RAM (default), the memory block will not be initialized at all.

Platform-Specific Memory Primitives
If required, the default IMEM can be replaced by a platform-/technology-specific primitive to optimize area utilization, timing and power consumption.
Memory Size
If the configured memory size (via the MEM_INT_IMEM_SIZE generic) is not a power of two the actual memory size will be auto-adjusted to the next power of two (e.g. configuring a memory size of 60kB will result in a physical memory size of 64kB).
Legacy HDL Style
If synthesis fails to infer block RAM for the IMEM, turn on the alt_style_c option inside the memory’s VHDL source file. When enabled, a different HDL style is used to describe the memory core.
Read-Only Access
If the IMEM is implemented as ROM any write attempt to it will raise a store access fault exception.

2.8.2. Data Memory (DMEM)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_dmem.vhd

default platform-agnostic data memory

Software driver files:

none

implicitly used

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

MEM_INT_DMEM_EN

implement processor-internal DMEM when true

MEM_INT_DMEM_SIZE

DMEM size in bytes (use a power of 2)

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

none

Overview

Implementation of the processor-internal data memory is enabled by the processor’s MEM_INT_DMEM_EN generic. The total memory size in bytes is defined via the MEM_INT_DMEM_SIZE generic. Note that this size should be a power of two to optimize physical implementation. If the DMEM is implemented, it is mapped to base address 0x80000000 by default (see section Address Space). The DMEM is always implemented as true RAM.

Platform-Specific Memory Primitives
If required, the default DMEM can be replaced by a platform-/technology-specific primitive to optimize area utilization, timing and power consumption.
Memory Size
If the configured memory size (via the MEM_INT_DMEM_SIZE generic) is not a power of two the actual memory size will be auto-adjusted to the next power of two (e.g. configuring a memory size of 60kB will result in a physical memory size of 64kB).
Legacy HDL Style
If synthesis fails to infer block RAM for the DMEM, turn on the alt_style_c option inside the memory’s VHDL source file. When enabled, a different HDL style is used to describe the memory core.
Execute from RAM
The CPU is capable of executing code also from arbitrary data memory.

2.8.3. Bootloader ROM (BOOTROM)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_boot_rom.vhd

default platform-agnostic bootloader ROM

neorv32_bootloader_image.vhd

initialization image (a VHDL package)

Software driver files:

none

implicitly used

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

BOOT_MODE_SELECT

implement BOOTROM when BOOT_MODE_SELECT = 0; see Boot Configuration

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, read-only

Overview

The boot ROM contains the executable image of the default NEORV32 Bootloader. When the Boot Configuration is set to bootloader mode (0) via the BOOT_MODE_SELECT generic, the boot ROM is automatically enabled and the CPU boot address is automatically adjusted to the base address of the boot ROM.

Bootloader Image
The boot ROM is initialized during synthesis with the default bootloader image (rtl/core/neorv32_bootloader_image.vhd). Note that the BOOTROM size is constrained to 4kB.

2.8.4. Processor-Internal Instruction Cache (iCACHE)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_cache.vhd

Generic cache module

Software driver files:

none

implicitly used

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

ICACHE_EN

implement processor-internal instruction cache when true

ICACHE_NUM_BLOCKS

number of cache blocks (pages/lines)

ICACHE_BLOCK_SIZE

size of a cache block in bytes

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

none

Overview

The processor features an optional instruction cache to improve performance when using memories with high access latencies. The cache is connected directly to the CPU’s instruction fetch interface and provides full-transparent accesses. The cache is direct-mapped and read-only.

Cached/Uncached Accesses
The data cache provides direct accesses (= uncached) to memory in order to access memory-mapped IO (like the processor-internal IO/peripheral modules). All accesses that target the address range from 0xF0000000 to 0xFFFFFFFF will not be cached at all (see section Address Space). Direct/uncached accesses have lower priority than cache block operations to allow continuous burst transfer and also to maintain logical instruction forward progress / data coherency. Furthermore, atomic load-reservate and store-conditional instructions (Zalrsc ISA Extension) will always bypass the cache.
Caching Internal Memories
The data cache is intended to accelerate data access to processor-external memories. The CPU cache(s) should not be implemented when using only processor-internal data and instruction memories.
Manual Cache Clear/Reload
By executing the fence(.i) instruction the cache is cleared and a reload from main memory is triggered.
Retrieve Cache Configuration from Software
Software can retrieve the cache configuration/layout from the SYSINFO - Cache Configuration register.
Bus Access Fault Handling
The cache always loads a complete cache block (aligned to the block size) every time a cache miss is detected. Each cached word from this block provides a single status bit that indicates if the according bus access was successful or caused a bus error. Hence, the whole cache block remains valid even if certain addresses inside caused a bus error. If the CPU accesses any of the faulty cache words, an instruction bus error exception is raised.

2.8.5. Processor-Internal Data Cache (dCACHE)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_cache.vhd

Generic cache module

Software driver files:

none

implicitly used

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

DCACHE_EN

implement processor-internal data cache when true

DCACHE_NUM_BLOCKS

number of cache blocks (pages/lines)

DCACHE_BLOCK_SIZE

size of a cache block in bytes

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

none

Overview

The processor features an optional data cache to improve performance when using memories with high access latencies. The cache is connected directly to the CPU’s data access interface and provides full-transparent accesses. The cache is direct-mapped and uses "write-allocate" and "write-back" strategies.

Cached/Uncached Accesses
The data cache provides direct accesses (= uncached) to memory in order to access memory-mapped IO (like the processor-internal IO/peripheral modules). All accesses that target the address range from 0xF0000000 to 0xFFFFFFFF will not be cached at all (see section Address Space). Direct/uncached accesses have lower priority than cache block operations to allow continuous burst transfer and also to maintain logical instruction forward progress / data coherency. Furthermore, atomic load-reservate and store-conditional instructions (Zalrsc ISA Extension) will always bypass the cache.
Caching Internal Memories
The data cache is intended to accelerate data access to processor-external memories. The CPU cache(s) should not be implemented when using only processor-internal data and instruction memories.
Manual Cache Flush/Clear/Reload
By executing the fence(.i) instruction the cache is flushed, cleared and a reload from main memory is triggered.
Retrieve Cache Configuration from Software
Software can retrieve the cache configuration/layout from the SYSINFO - Cache Configuration register.
Bus Access Fault Handling
The cache always loads a complete cache block (aligned to the block size) every time a cache miss is detected. Each cached word from this block provides a single status bit that indicates if the according bus access was successful or caused a bus error. Hence, the whole cache block remains valid even if certain addresses inside caused a bus error. If the CPU accesses any of the faulty cache words, a data bus error exception is raised.

2.8.6. Direct Memory Access Controller (DMA)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_dma.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_dma.c

neorv32_dma.h

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

IO_DMA_EN

implement DMA when true

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 10

DMA transfer done (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The NEORV32 DMA provides a small-scale scatter/gather direct memory access controller that allows to transfer and modify data independently of the CPU. A single read/write transfer channel is implemented that is configured via memory-mapped registers. a configured transfer can either be triggered manually or by a programmable CPU FIRQ interrupt (see NEORV32-Specific Fast Interrupt Requests).

The DMA is connected to the central processor-internal bus system (see section Address Space) and can access the same address space as the CPU core. It uses interleaving mode accessing the central processor bus only if the CPU does not currently request and bus access.

The controller can handle different data quantities (e.g. read bytes and write them back as sign-extend words) and can also change the Endianness of data while transferring.

DMA Demo Program
A DMA example program can be found in sw/example/demo_dma.

Theory of Operation

The DMA provides four memory-mapped interface registers: A status and control register CTRL and three registers for configuring the actual DMA transfer. The base address of the source data is programmed via the SRC_BASE register. Vice versa, the base address of the destination data is programmed via the DST_BASE. The third configuration register TTYPE is use to configure the actual transfer type and the number of elements to transfer.

The DMA is enabled by setting the DMA_CTRL_EN bit of the control register. Manual trigger mode (i.e. the DMA transfer is triggered by writing to the TTYPE register) is selected if DMA_CTRL_AUTO is cleared. Alternatively, the DMA transfer can be triggered by a processor internal FIRQ signal if DMA_CTRL_AUTO is set (see section below).

The DMA uses a load-modify-write data transfer process. Data is read from the bus system, internally modified and then written back to the bus system. This combination is implemented as an atomic progress, so canceling the current transfer by clearing the DMA_CTRL_EN bit will stop the DMA right after the current load-modify-write operation.

If the DMA controller detects a bus error during operation, it will set either the DMA_CTRL_ERROR_RD (error during last read access) or DMA_CTRL_ERROR_WR (error during last write access) and will terminate the current transfer. Software can read the SRC_BASE or DST_BASE register to retrieve the address that caused the according error. Alternatively, software can read back the NUM bits of the control register to determine the index of the element that caused the error. The error bits are automatically cleared when starting a new transfer.

When the DMA_CTRL_DONE flag is set the DMA has actually executed a transfer. However, the DMA_CTRL_ERROR_* flags should also be checked to verify that the executed transfer completed without errors. The DMA_CTRL_DONE flag is automatically cleared when writing the CTRL register.

DMA Access Privilege Level
Transactions performed by the DMA are executed as bus transactions with elevated machine-mode privilege level. Note that any physical memory protection rules (Smpmp ISA Extension) are not applied to DMA transfers.

Transfer Configuration

If the DMA is set to manual trigger mode (DMA_CTRL_AUTO = 0) writing the TTRIG register will start the programmed DMA transfer. Once started, the DMA will read one data quantity from the source address, processes it internally and then will write it back to the destination address. The DMA_TTYPE_NUM bits of the TTYPE register define how many times this process is repeated by specifying the number of elements to transfer.

Optionally, the source and/or destination addresses can be increments according to the data quantities automatically by setting the according DMA_TTYPE_SRC_INC and/or DMA_TTYPE_DST_INC bit.

Four different transfer quantities are available, which are configured via the DMA_TTYPE_QSEL bits:

  • 00: Read source data as byte, write destination data as byte

  • 01: Read source data as byte, write destination data as zero-extended word

  • 10: Read source data as byte, write destination data as sign-extended word

  • 11: Read source data as word, write destination data as word

Optionally, the DMA controller can automatically convert Endianness of the transferred data if the DMA_TTYPE_ENDIAN bit is set.

Address Alignment
Make sure to align the source and destination base addresses to the according transfer data quantities. For instance, word-to-word transfers require that the two LSB of SRC_BASE and DST_BASE are cleared.
Writing to IO Device
When writing data to IO / peripheral devices (for example to the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)) the destination data quantity has to be set to word (32-bit) since all IO registers can only be written in full 32-bit word mode.

Automatic Trigger

As an alternative to the manual trigger mode, the DMA can be set to automatic trigger mode starting a pre-configured transfer if a specific processor-internal peripheral issues a FIRQ interrupt request. The automatic trigger mode is enabled by setting the CTRL register’s DMA_CTRL_AUTO bit. In this configuration no transfer is started when writing to the DMA’s TTYPE register.

The actually triggering FIRQ channel is configured via the control register’s DMA_CTRL_FIRQ_SEL bits. Writing a 0 will select FIRQ channel 0, writing a 1 will select FIRQ channel 1, and so on. See section Processor Interrupts for a list of all FIRQ channels and their according sources.

The FIRQ trigger can operate in two trigger mode configured via the DMA_CTRL_FIRQ_TYPE flag:

  • DMA_CTRL_FIRQ_TYPE = 0: trigger the automatic DMA transfer on a rising-edge of the selected FIRQ channel (e.g. trigger DMA transfer only once)

  • DMA_CTRL_FIRQ_TYPE = 1: trigger the automatic DMA transfer when the selected FIRQ channel is active (e.g. trigger DMA transfer again and again)

FIRQ Trigger
The DMA transfer will start if a rising edge is detected on the configured FIRQ channel. Hence, the DMA is triggered only once even if the selected FIRQ channel keeps pending.

Memory Barrier / Fence Operation

Optionally, the DMA can issue a FENCE request to the downstream memory system when a transfer has been completed without errors. This can be used to re-sync caches (flush and reload) and buffers to maintain data coherency. This automatic fencing is enabled by the setting the control register’s DMA_CTRL_FENCE bit.

DMA Interrupt

The DMA features a single CPU interrupt that is triggered when the programmed transfer has completed. This interrupt is also triggered if the DMA encounters a bus error during operation. The interrupt will remain pending until the control register’s DMA_CTRL_DONE is cleared (this will happen upon any write access to the control register).

Register Map

Table 9. DMA Register Map (struct NEORV32_DMA)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xffffed00

CTRL

0 DMA_CTRL_EN

r/w

DMA module enable

1 DMA_CTRL_AUTO

r/w

Enable automatic mode (FIRQ-triggered)

2 DMA_CTRL_FENCE

r/w

Issue a downstream FENCE operation when DMA transfer completes (without errors)

7:3 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

8 DMA_CTRL_ERROR_RD

r/-

Error during read access, clears when starting a new transfer

9 DMA_CTRL_ERROR_WR

r/-

Error during write access, clears when starting a new transfer

10 DMA_CTRL_BUSY

r/-

DMA transfer in progress

11 DMA_CTRL_DONE

r/c

Set if a transfer was executed; auto-clears on write-access

14:12 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

15 DMA_CTRL_FIRQ_TYPE

r/w

Trigger on rising-edge (0) or high-level (1) or selected FIRQ channel

19:16 DMA_CTRL_FIRQ_SEL_MSB : DMA_CTRL_FIRQ_SEL_LSB

r/w

FIRQ trigger select (FIRQ0=0 …​ FIRQ15=15)

31:20 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

0xffffed04

SRC_BASE

31:0

r/w

Source base address (shows the last-accessed source address when read)

0xffffed08

DST_BASE

31:0

r/w

Destination base address (shows the last-accessed destination address when read)

0xffffed0c

TTYPE

23:0 DMA_TTYPE_NUM_MSB : DMA_TTYPE_NUM_LSB

r/w

Number of elements to transfer (shows the last-transferred element index when read)

26:24 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

28:27 DMA_TTYPE_QSEL_MSB : DMA_TTYPE_QSEL_LSB

r/w

Quantity select (00 = byte → byte, 01 = byte → zero-extended-word, 10 = byte → sign-extended-word, 11 = word → word)

29 DMA_TTYPE_SRC_INC

r/w

Constant (0) or incrementing (1) source address

30 DMA_TTYPE_DST_INC

r/w

Constant (0) or incrementing (1) destination address

31 DMA_TTYPE_ENDIAN

r/w

Swap Endianness when set

2.8.7. Processor-External Bus Interface (XBUS)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_xbus.vhd

External bus gateway

neorv32_cache.vhd

Generic cache module

Software driver files:

none

implicitly used

Top entity ports:

xbus_adr_o

address output (32-bit)

xbus_dat_o

data output (32-bit)

xbus_tag_o

access tag (3-bit)

xbus_we_o

write enable (1-bit)

xbus_sel_o

byte enable (4-bit)

xbus_stb_o

bus strobe (1-bit)

xbus_cyc_o

valid cycle (1-bit)

xbus_dat_i

data input (32-bit)

xbus_ack_i

acknowledge (1-bit)

xbus_err_i

bus error (1-bit)

Configuration generics:

XBUS_EN

enable external bus interface when true

XBUS_TIMEOUT

number of clock cycles after which an unacknowledged external bus access will auto-terminate (0 = disabled)

XBUS_REGSTAGE_EN

implement XBUS register stages

XBUS_CACHE_EN

implement the external bus cache

XBUS_CACHE_NUM_BLOCKS

number of blocks ("lines"), has to be a power of two.

XBUS_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE

size in bytes of each block, has to be a power of two.

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

none

Overview

The external bus interface provides a Wishbone b4-compatible on-chip bus interface that is implemented if the XBUS_EN generic is true. This bus interface can be used to attach processor-external modules like memories, custom hardware accelerators or additional peripheral devices. An optional cache module ("XCACHE") can be enabled to improve memory access latency.

Address Mapping
The external interface is not mapped to a specific address space. Instead, all CPU memory accesses that do not target a specific (and actually implemented) processor-internal address region (hence, accessing the "void"; see section Address Space) are redirected to the external bus interface.
AXI4-Lite Interface Bridge
A simple bridge that converts the processor’s XBUS into an AXI4-lite-compatible host interface can be found in in rtl/system_inegration (xbus2axi4lite_bridge.vhd).
AHB3-Lite Interface Bridge
A simple bridge that converts the processor’s XBUS into an AHB3-lite-compatible host interface can be found in in rtl/system_inegration (xbus2ahblite_bridge.vhd).

Wishbone Bus Protocol

The external bus interface complies to the pipelined Wishbone b4 protocol. Even though this protocol was explicitly designed to support pipelined transfers, only a single transfer will be "in fly" at once. Hence, just two types of bus transactions are generated by the XBUS controller (see images below).

700
Figure 4. XBUS/Wishbone Write Transaction
700
Figure 5. XBUS/Wishbone Read Transaction
Wishbone "Classic" Protocol
Native support for the "classic" Wishbone protocol has been deprecated. However, classic mode can still be emulated by connecting the processor’s xbus_cyc_o directly to the device’s / bus system’s cyc and stb signals (omitting the processor’s xbus_stb_o signal).
Endianness
Just like the processor itself the XBUS interface uses little-endian byte order.
Wishbone Specs.
A detailed description of the implemented Wishbone bus protocol and the according interface signals can be found in the data sheet "Wishbone B4 - WISHBONE System-on-Chip (SoC) Interconnection Architecture for Portable IP Cores". A copy of this document can be found in the docs folder of this project.

An accessed XBUS/Wishbone device does not have to respond immediately to a bus request by sending an ACK. Instead, there is a time window where the device has to acknowledge the transfer. This time window is configured by the XBUS_TIMEOUT generic and it defines the maximum time (in clock cycles) a bus access can be pending before it is automatically terminated raising an bus fault exception. If XBUS_TIMEOUT is set to zero, the timeout is disabled and a bus access can take an arbitrary number of cycles to complete. Note that this is not recommended as a missing ACK will permanently stall the entire processor!

Furthermore, an accesses XBUS/Wishbone device can signal an error condition at any time by setting the ERR signal high for one cycle. This will also terminate the current bus transaction before raising a CPU bus fault exception.

Register Stage
An optional register stage can be added to the XBUS gateway to break up the critical path easing timing closure. When XBUS_REGSTAGE_EN is true all outgoing and incoming XBUS signals are registered increasing access latency by two cycles. Furthermore, all outgoing signals (like the address) will be kept stable if there is no bus access being initiated.

Access Tag

The XBUS tag signal xbus_tag_o(0) provides additional information about the current access cycle. It compatible to the the AXI4 ARPROT and AWPROT signals.

  • xbus_tag_o(0) P: access is performed from privileged mode (machine-mode) when set

  • xbus_tag_o(1) NS: this bit is hardwired to 0 indicating a secure access

  • xbus_tag_o(2) I: access is an instruction fetch when set; access is a data access when cleared

External Bus Cache (X-CACHE)

The XBUS interface provides an optional internal cache that can be used to buffer processor-external accesses. The x-cache is enabled via the XBUS_CACHE_EN generic. The total size of the cache is split into the number of cache lines or cache blocks (XBUS_CACHE_NUM_BLOCKS generic) and the line or block size in bytes (XBUS_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE generic).

Listing 6. Simplified X-Cache Architecture
                Direct Access         +----------+
          /|------------------------->| Register |------------------------>|\
         | |                          +----------+                         | |
Core --->| |                                                               | |---> XBUS
         | |    +--------------+    +--------------+    +-------------+    | |
          \|--->| Host Arbiter |--->| Cache Memory |<---| Bus Arbiter |--->|/
                +--------------+    +--------------+    +-------------+

The cache uses a direct-mapped architecture that implements "write-allocate" and "write-back" strategies. The write-allocate strategy will fetch the entire referenced block from main memory when encountering a cache write-miss. The write-back strategy will gather all writes locally inside the cache until the according cache block is about to be replaced. In this case, the entire modified cache block is written back to main memory.

Cached/Uncached Accesses
The data cache provides direct accesses (= uncached) to memory in order to access memory-mapped IO. All accesses that target the address range from 0xF0000000 to 0xFFFFFFFF will not be cached at all (see section Address Space). Direct/uncached accesses have lower priority than cache block operations to allow continuous burst transfer and also to maintain logical instruction forward progress / data coherency. Furthermore, atomic load-reservate and store-conditional instructions (Zalrsc ISA Extension) will always bypass the cache.

Hardware source files:

neorv32_slink.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_slink.c

neorv32_slink.h

Top entity ports:

slink_rx_dat_i

RX link data (32-bit)

slink_rx_src_i

RX routing information (4-bit)

slink_rx_val_i

RX link data valid (1-bit)

slink_rx_lst_i

RX link last element of stream (1-bit)

slink_rx_rdy_o

RX link ready to receive (1-bit)

slink_tx_dat_o

TX link data (32-bit)

slink_tx_dst_o

TX routing information (4-bit)

slink_tx_val_o

TX link data valid (1-bit)

slink_tx_lst_o

TX link last element of stream (1-bit)

slink_tx_rdy_i

TX link allowed to send (1-bit)

Configuration generics:

IO_SLINK_EN

implement SLINK when true

IO_SLINK_RX_FIFO

RX FIFO depth (1..32k), has to be a power of two, min 1

IO_SLINK_TX_FIFO

TX FIFO depth (1..32k), has to be a power of two, min 1

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 14

RX SLINK IRQ (see Processor Interrupts)

fast IRQ channel 15

TX SLINK IRQ (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The stream link interface provides independent RX and TX channels for sending and receiving stream data. Each channel features a configurable internal FIFO to buffer stream data (IO_SLINK_RX_FIFO for the RX FIFO, IO_SLINK_TX_FIFO for the TX FIFO). The SLINK interface provides higher bandwidth and less latency than the external bus interface making it ideally suited for coupling custom stream processors or streaming peripherals.

Example Program
An example program for the SLINK module is available in sw/example/demo_slink.

Interface & Protocol

The SLINK interface consists of four signals for each channel:

  • dat contains the actual data word

  • val marks the current transmission cycle as valid

  • lst marks the current transmission cycle as the last element of a stream

  • rdy indicates that the receiver is ready to receive

  • src and dst provide source/destination routing information (optional)

AXI4-Stream Compatibility
The interface names (except for src and dst) and the underlying protocol is compatible to the AXI4-Stream protocol standard. A processor top entity with a AXI4-Stream-compatible interfaces can be found in rtl/system_inegration. More information regarding this alternate top entity can be found in in the user guide: https://stnolting.github.io/neorv32/ug/#_packaging_the_processor_as_vivado_ip_block

Theory of Operation

The SLINK provides four interface registers. The control register (CTRL) is used to configure the module and to check its status. Two individual data registers (DATA and DATA_LAST) are used to send and receive the link’s actual data stream.

The DATA register provides direct access to the RX/TX FIFO buffers. Read accesses return data from the RX FIFO. After reading data from this register the control register’s SLINK_CTRL_RX_LAST flag can be checked to determine if the according data word has been marked as "end of stream" via the slink_rx_lst_i signal (this signal is also buffered by the link’s FIFO). Writing to the DATA register will immediately write to the TX link FIFO. When writing to the TX_DATA_LAST the according data word will also be marked as "end of stream" via the slink_tx_lst_o signal (this signal is also buffered by the link’s FIFO).

The configured FIFO sizes can be retrieved by software via the control register’s SLINK_CTRL_RX_FIFO_* and SLINK_CTRL_TX_FIFO_* bits.

The SLINK is globally activated by setting the control register’s enable bit SLINK_CTRL_EN. Clearing this bit will reset all internal logic and will also clear both FIFOs. The FIFOs can also be cleared manually at any time by setting the SLINK_CTRL_RX_CLR and/or SLINK_CTRL_TX_CLR bits (these bits will auto-clear).

FIFO Overflow
Writing to the TX channel’s FIFO while it is full will have no effect. Reading from the RX channel’s FIFO while it is empty will also have no effect and will return the last received data word. There is no overflow indicator implemented yet.

The current status of the RX and TX FIFOs can be determined via the control register’s SLINK_CTRL_RX_* and SLINK_CTRL_TX_* flags.

Stream Routing Information

Both stream link interface provide an optional port for routing information: slink_tx_dst_o (AXI stream’s TDEST) can be used to set a destination address when using a switch/interconnect to access several stream sinks. slink_rx_src_i (AXI stream’s TID) can be used to determine the source when several sources can send data via a switch/interconnect. The routing information can be set/read via the ROUTE interface registers. Note that all routing information is also fully buffered by the internal RX/TX FIFOs. RX routing information has to be read after reading the according RX data. Vice versa, TX routing information has to be set before writing the according TX data.

Interrupts

The SLINK module provides two independent interrupt channels: one for RX events and one for TX events. The interrupt conditions are based on the according link’s FIFO status flags and are configured via the control register’s SLINK_CTRL_IRQ_* flags. The according interrupt will fire when the module is enabled (SLINK_CTRL_EN) and the selected interrupt conditions are met. Note that all enabled interrupt conditions are logically OR-ed per channel. If any enable interrupt conditions becomes active the interrupt will become pending until the interrupt-causing condition is resolved (e.g. by reading from the RX FIFO).

Register Map

Table 10. SLINK register map (struct NEORV32_SLINK)
Address Name [C] Bit(s) R/W Function

0xffffec00

NEORV32_SLINK.CTRL

0 SLINK_CTRL_EN

r/w

SLINK global enable

1 SLINK_CTRL_RX_CLR

-/w

Clear RX FIFO when set (bit auto-clears)

2 SLINK_CTRL_TX_CLR

-/w

Clear TX FIFO when set (bit auto-clears)

3 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

4 SLINK_CTRL_RX_LAST

r/-

Last word read from RX_DATA is marked as "end of stream"

7:5 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

8 SLINK_CTRL_RX_EMPTY

r/-

RX FIFO empty

9 SLINK_CTRL_RX_HALF

r/-

RX FIFO at least half full

10 SLINK_CTRL_RX_FULL

r/-

RX FIFO full

11 SLINK_CTRL_TX_EMPTY

r/-

TX FIFO empty

12 SLINK_CTRL_TX_HALF

r/-

TX FIFO at least half full

13 SLINK_CTRL_TX_FULL

r/-

TX FIFO full

15:14 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

16 SLINK_CTRL_IRQ_RX_NEMPTY

r/w

RX interrupt if RX FIFO not empty

17 SLINK_CTRL_IRQ_RX_HALF

r/w

RX interrupt if RX FIFO at least half full

18 SLINK_CTRL_IRQ_RX_FULL

r/w

RX interrupt if RX FIFO full

19 SLINK_CTRL_IRQ_TX_EMPTY

r/w

TX interrupt if TX FIFO empty

20 SLINK_CTRL_IRQ_TX_NHALF

r/w

TX interrupt if TX FIFO not at least half full

21 SLINK_CTRL_IRQ_TX_NFULL

r/w

TX interrupt if TX FIFO not full

23:22 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

27:24 SLINK_CTRL_RX_FIFO_MSB : SLINK_CTRL_RX_FIFO_LSB

r/-

log2(RX FIFO size)

31:28 SLINK_CTRL_TX_FIFO_MSB : SLINK_CTRL_TX_FIFO_LSB

r/-

log2(TX FIFO size)

0xffffec04

NEORV32_SLINK.ROUTE

3:0

r/w

TX destination routing information (slink_tx_dst_o)

7:4

r/-

RX source routing information (slink_rx_src_i)

31:8

-/-

reserved

0xffffec08

NEORV32_SLINK.DATA

31:0

r/w

Write data to TX FIFO; read data from RX FIFO

0xffffec0c

NEORV32_SLINK.DATA_LAST

31:0

r/w

Write data to TX FIFO (and also set "last" signal); read data from RX FIFO

2.8.9. General Purpose Input and Output Port (GPIO)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_gpio.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_gpio.c

neorv32_gpio.h

Top entity ports:

gpio_o

64-bit parallel output port

gpio_i

64-bit parallel input port

Configuration generics:

IO_GPIO_NUM

number of input/output pairs to implement (0..64)

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The general purpose parallel IO unit provides a simple parallel input and output port. These ports can be used chip-externally (for example to drive status LEDs, connect buttons, etc.) or chip-internally to provide control signals for other IP modules.

The actual number of input/output pairs is defined by the IO_GPIO_NUM generic. When set to zero, the GPIO module is excluded from synthesis and the output port gpio_o is tied to all-zero. If IO_GPIO_NUM is less than the maximum value of 64, only the LSB-aligned bits in gpio_o and gpio_i are actually connected while the remaining bits are tied to zero or are left unconnected, respectively.

Access Atomicity
The GPIO modules uses two memory-mapped registers (each 32-bit) each for accessing the input and output signals. Since the CPU can only process 32-bit "at once" updating the entire output cannot be performed within a single clock cycle.

Register Map

Table 11. GPIO unit register map (struct NEORV32_GPIO)
Address Name [C] Bit(s) R/W Function

0xfffffc00

INPUT[0]

31:0

r/-

parallel input port pins 31:0

0xfffffc04

INPUT[1]

31:0

r/-

parallel input port pins 63:32

0xfffffc08

OUTPUT[0]

31:0

r/w

parallel output port pins 31:0

0xfffffc0c

OUTPUT[1]

31:0

r/w

parallel output port pins 63:32

2.8.10. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_crc.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_crc.c

neorv32_crc.h

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

IO_CRC_EN

implement CRC module when true

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The cyclic redundancy check unit provides a programmable checksum computation module. The unit operates on single bytes and can either compute CRC8, CRC16 or CRC32 checksums based on an arbitrary polynomial and start value.

CRC Demo Program
A CRC example program (also using CPU-independent DMA transfers) can be found in sw/example/crc_dma.
CPU-Independent Operation
The CRC unit can compute a checksum for an arbitrary memory array without any CPU overhead by using the processor’s Direct Memory Access Controller (DMA).

Theory of Operation

The module provides four interface registers:

  • MODE: selects either CRC8-, CRC16- or CRC32-mode

  • POLY: programmable polynomial

  • DATA: data input register (single bytes only)

  • SREG: the CRC shift register; this register is used to define the start value and to obtain the final processing result

The MODE, POLY and SREG registers need to be programmed before the actual processing can be started. Writing a byte to DATA will update the current checksum in SREG.

Access Latency
Write access to the CRC module have an increased latency of 8 clock cycles. This additional latency ensures that the internal bit-serial processing of the current data byte has also been completed when the transfer is completed.
Data Size
For CRC8-mode only bits 7:0 of POLY and SREG are relevant; for CRC16-mode only bits 15:0 are used and for CRC32-mode the entire 32-bit of POLY and SREG are used.

Register Map

Table 12. CRC Register Map (struct NEORV32_CRC)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xffffee00

CTRL

1:0

r/w

CRC mode select (00 CRC8, 01: CRC16, 10: CRC32)

31:2

r/-

reserved, read as zero

0xffffee04

POLY

31:0

r/w

CRC polynomial

0xffffee08

DATA

7:0

r/w

data input (single byte)

31:8

r/-

reserved, read as zero, writes are ignored

0xffffee0c

SREG

32:0

r/w

current CRC shift register value (set start value on write)

2.8.11. Watchdog Timer (WDT)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_wdt.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_wdt.c

neorv32_wdt.h

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

IO_WDT_EN

implement watchdog when true

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The watchdog (WDT) provides a last resort for safety-critical applications. When a pre-programmed timeout value is reached a system-wide hardware reset is generated. The internal counter has to be reset explicitly by the application program every now and then to prevent a timeout.

Theory of Operation

The watchdog is enabled by setting the control register’s WDT_CTRL_EN bit. When this bit is cleared, the internal timeout counter is reset to zero and no system reset can be triggered by this module.

The internal 32-bit timeout counter is clocked at 1/4096th of the processor’s main clock (fWDT[Hz] = fmain[Hz] / 4096). Whenever this counter reaches the programmed timeout value (WDT_CTRL_TIMEOUT bits in the control register) a hardware reset is triggered.

The watchdog’s timeout counter is reset ("feeding the watchdog") by writing the reset PASSWORD to the RESET register. The password is hardwired to hexadecimal 0x709D1AB3.

Watchdog Operation during Debugging
By default, the watchdog stops operation when the CPU enters debug mode and will resume normal operation after the CPU has left debug mode again. This will prevent an unintended watchdog timeout during a debug session. However, the watchdog can also be configured to keep operating even when the CPU is in debug mode by setting the control register’s WDT_CTRL_DBEN bit.
Watchdog Operation during CPU Sleep
By default, the watchdog stops operating when the CPU enters sleep mode. However, the watchdog can also be configured to keep operating even when the CPU is in sleep mode by setting the control register’s WDT_CTRL_SEN bit.

Configuration Lock

The watchdog control register can be locked to protect the current configuration from being modified. The lock is activated by setting the WDT_CTRL_LOCK bit. In the locked state any write access to the control register is entirely ignored (see table below, "writable if locked"). However, read accesses to the control register as well as watchdog resets are further possible.

The lock bit can only be set if the WDT is already enabled (WDT_CTRL_EN is set). Furthermore, the lock bit can only be cleared again by a system-wide hardware reset.

Strict Mode

The strict operation mode provides additional safety functions. If the strict mode is enabled by the WDT_CTRL_STRICT control register bit an immediate hardware reset if enforced if

  • the RESET register is written with an incorrect password or

  • the CTRL register is written and the WDT_CTRL_LOCK bit is set.

Cause of last Hardware Reset

The cause of the last system hardware reset can be determined via the WDT_CTRL_RCAUSE_* bits:

  • WDT_RCAUSE_EXT (0b00): Reset caused by external reset signal/pin

  • WDT_RCAUSE_OCD (0b01): Reset caused by on-chip debugger

  • WDT_RCAUSE_TMO (0b10): Reset caused by watchdog timeout

  • WDT_RCAUSE_ACC (0b11): Reset caused by illegal watchdog access (strict mode)

Register Map

Table 13. WDT register map (struct NEORV32_WDT)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Reset value Writable if locked Function

0xfffffb00

CTRL

0 WDT_CTRL_EN

r/w

0

no

watchdog enable

1 WDT_CTRL_LOCK

r/w

0

no

lock configuration when set, clears only on system reset, can only be set if enable bit is set already

2 WDT_CTRL_DBEN

r/w

0

no

set to allow WDT to continue operation even when CPU is in debug mode

3 WDT_CTRL_SEN

r/w

0

no

set to allow WDT to continue operation even when CPU is in sleep mode

4 WDT_CTRL_STRICT

r/w

0

no

set to enable strict mode (force hardware reset if reset password is incorrect or if write access to locked CTRL register)

6:5 WDT_CTRL_RCAUSE_HI : WDT_CTRL_RCAUSE_LO

r/-

0

-

cause of last system reset; 0=external reset, 1=ocd-reset, 2=watchdog reset

7 -

r/-

-

-

reserved, reads as zero

31:8 WDT_CTRL_TIMEOUT_MSB : WDT_CTRL_TIMEOUT_LSB

r/w

0

no

24-bit watchdog timeout value

0xfffffb04

RESET

31:0

-/w

-

yes

Write PASSWORD to reset WDT timeout counter

2.8.12. Machine System Timer (MTIME)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_mtime.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_mtime.c

neorv32_mtime.h

Top entity ports:

mtime_irq_i

RISC-V machine timer IRQ if internal one is not implemented

mtime_time_o

Current system time (TIME register)

Configuration generics:

IO_MTIME_EN

implement machine timer when true

CPU interrupts:

MTI

machine timer interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The MTIME module implements a memory-mapped machine system timer that is compatible to the RISC-V privileged specifications. The 64-bit system time is accessed via individual TIME_LO and TIME_HI registers. A 64-bit time compare register, which is accessible via individual TIMECMP_LO and TIMECMP_HI registers, can be used to configure the CPU’s machine timer interrupt (MTI)).

The interrupt is triggered whenever TIME (high & low part) is greater than or equal to TIMECMP (high & low part). The interrupt remains active (=pending) until TIME becomes less than TIMECMP again (either by modifying TIME or TIMECMP). The current system time is available for other SoC modules via the top’s mtime_time_o signal.

Hardware Reset
After a hardware reset the TIME and TIMECMP register are reset to all-zero.
External MTIME Interrupt
If the internal MTIME module is disabled (IO_MTIME_EN = false) the machine timer interrupt becomes available as external signal. The mtime_irq_i signal is level-triggered and high-active. Once set the signal has to stay high until the interrupt request is explicitly acknowledged (e.g. writing to a user-defined memory-mapped register).

Register Map

Table 14. MTIME register map (struct NEORV32_MTIME)
Address Name [C] Bits R/W Function

0xfffff400

TIME_LO

31:0

r/w

system time, low word

0xfffff404

TIME_HI

31:0

r/w

system time, high word

0xfffff408

TIMECMP_LO

31:0

r/w

time compare, low word

0xfffff40c

TIMECMP_HI

31:0

r/w

time compare, high word

2.8.13. Primary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART0)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_uart.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_uart.c

neorv32_uart.h

Top entity ports:

uart0_txd_o

serial transmitter output

uart0_rxd_i

serial receiver input

uart0_rts_o

flow control: RX ready to receive, low-active

uart0_cts_i

flow control: RX ready to receive, low-active

Configuration generics:

IO_UART0_EN

implement UART0 when true

UART0_RX_FIFO

RX FIFO depth (power of 2, min 1)

UART0_TX_FIFO

TX FIFO depth (power of 2, min 1)

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 2

RX interrupt

fast IRQ channel 3

TX interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The NEORV32 UART provides a standard serial interface with independent transmitter and receiver channels, each equipped with a configurable FIFO. The transmission frame is fixed to 8N1: 8 data bits, no parity bit, 1 stop bit. The actual transmission rate (Baud rate) is programmable via software. The module features two memory-mapped registers: CTRL and DATA. These are used for configuration, status check and data transfer.

Standard Console
All default example programs and software libraries of the NEORV32 software framework (including the bootloader and the runtime environment) use the primary UART (UART0) as default user console interface. Furthermore, UART0 is used to implement the "standard consoles" (STDIN, STDOUT and STDERR).

RX and TX FIFOs

The UART provides individual data FIFOs for RX and TX to allow data transmission without CPU intervention. The sizes of these FIFOs can be configured via the according configuration generics (UART0_RX_FIFO and UART0_TX_FIFO). Both FIFOs a re automatically cleared when disabling the module via the UART_CTRL_EN flag. However, the FIFOs can also be cleared individually by setting the UART_CTRL_RX_CLR / UART_CTRL_TX_CLR flags.

Theory of Operation

The module is enabled by setting the UART_CTRL_EN bit in the UART0 control register CTRL. The Baud rate is configured via a 10-bit UART_CTRL_BAUDx baud divisor (baud_div) and a 3-bit UART_CTRL_PRSCx clock prescaler (clock_prescaler).

Table 15. UART0 Clock Configuration
UART_CTRL_PRSCx 0b000 0b001 0b010 0b011 0b100 0b101 0b110 0b111

Resulting clock_prescaler

2

4

8

64

128

1024

2048

4096

Baud rate = (fmain[Hz] / clock_prescaler) / (baud_div + 1)

The control register’s UART_CTRL_RX_* and UART_CTRL_TX_* flags provide information about the RX and TX FIFO fill level. Disabling the module via the UART_CTRL_EN bit will also clear these FIFOs.

A new TX transmission is started by writing to the DATA register. The transfer is completed when the UART_CTRL_TX_BUSY control register flag returns to zero. RX data is available when the UART_CTRL_RX_NEMPTY flag becomes set. The UART_CTRL_RX_OVER will be set if the RX FIFO overflows. This flag is cleared only by disabling the module via UART_CTRL_EN.

UART Interrupts

The UART module provides independent interrupt channels for RX and TX. These interrupts are triggered by certain RX and TX FIFO levels. The actual configuration is programmed independently for the RX and TX interrupt channel via the control register’s UART_CTRL_IRQ_RX_* and UART_CTRL_IRQ_TX_* bits:

  1. RX IRQ The RX interrupt can be triggered by three different RX FIFO level states: If UART_CTRL_IRQ_RX_NEMPTY is set the interrupt fires if the RX FIFO is not empty (e.g. when incoming data is available). If UART_CTRL_IRQ_RX_HALF is set the RX IRQ fires if the RX FIFO is at least half-full. If UART_CTRL_IRQ_RX_FULL the interrupt fires if the RX FIFO is full. Note that all these programmable conditions are logically OR-ed (interrupt fires if any enabled conditions is true).

  2. TX IRQ The TX interrupt can be triggered by two different TX FIFO level states: If UART_CTRL_IRQ_TX_EMPTY is set the interrupt fires if the TX FIFO is empty. If UART_CTRL_IRQ_TX_NHALF is set the interrupt fires if the TX FIFO is not at least half full. Note that all these programmable conditions are logically OR-ed (interrupt fires if any enabled conditions is true).

Once an UART interrupt has fired it remains pending until the actual cause of the interrupt is resolved; for example if just the UART_CTRL_IRQ_RX_NEMPTY bit is set, the RX interrupt will keep firing until the RX FIFO is empty again.

RX/TX FIFO Size
Software can retrieve the configured sizes of the RX and TX FIFO via the according UART_DATA_RX_FIFO_SIZE and UART_DATA_TX_FIFO_SIZE bits from the DATA register.

RTS/CTS Hardware Flow Control

The NEORV32 UART supports optional hardware flow control using the standard CTS uart0_cts_i ("clear to send") and RTS uart0_rts_o ("ready to send" / "ready to receive (RTR)") signals. Both signals are low-active. Hardware flow control is enabled by setting the UART_CTRL_HWFC_EN bit in the modules control register CTRL.

When hardware flow control is enabled:

  1. The UART’s transmitter will not start a new transmission until the uart0_cts_i signal goes low. During this time, the UART busy flag UART_CTRL_TX_BUSY remains set.

  2. The UART will set uart0_rts_o signal low if the RX FIFO is less than half full (to have a wide safety margin). As long as this signal is low, the connected device can send new data. uart0_rts_o is always low if the hardware flow-control is disabled. Disabling the UART (setting UART_CTRL_EN low) while having hardware flow-control enabled, will set uart0_rts_o high to signal that the UARt is not capable of receiving new data.

Note that RTS and CTS signaling can only be activated together. If the RTS handshake is not required the signal can be left unconnected. If the CTS handshake is not required it has to be tied to zero.

Simulation Mode

The UART provides a simulation-only mode to dump console data as well as raw data directly to a file. When the simulation mode is enabled (by setting the UART_CTRL_SIM_MODE bit) there will be no physical transaction on the uart0_txd_o signal. Instead, all data written to the DATA register is immediately dumped to a file. Data written to DATA[7:0] will be dumped as ASCII chars to a file named neorv32.uart0_sim_mode.out. Additionally, the ASCII data is printed to the simulator console.

Both file are created in the simulation’s home folder.

Register Map

Table 16. UART0 register map (struct NEORV32_UART0)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffff500

CTRL

0 UART_CTRL_EN

r/w

UART enable

1 UART_CTRL_SIM_MODE

r/w

enable simulation mode

2 UART_CTRL_HWFC_EN

r/w

enable RTS/CTS hardware flow-control

5:3 UART_CTRL_PRSC2 : UART_CTRL_PRSC0

r/w

Baud rate clock prescaler select

15:6 UART_CTRL_BAUD9 : UART_CTRL_BAUD0

r/w

12-bit Baud value configuration value

16 UART_CTRL_RX_NEMPTY

r/-

RX FIFO not empty

17 UART_CTRL_RX_HALF

r/-

RX FIFO at least half-full

18 UART_CTRL_RX_FULL

r/-

RX FIFO full

19 UART_CTRL_TX_EMPTY

r/-

TX FIFO empty

20 UART_CTRL_TX_NHALF

r/-

TX FIFO not at least half-full

21 UART_CTRL_TX_FULL

r/-

TX FIFO full

22 UART_CTRL_IRQ_RX_NEMPTY

r/w

fire IRQ if RX FIFO not empty

23 UART_CTRL_IRQ_RX_HALF

r/w

fire IRQ if RX FIFO at least half-full

24 UART_CTRL_IRQ_RX_FULL

r/w

fire IRQ if RX FIFO full

25 UART_CTRL_IRQ_TX_EMPTY

r/w

fire IRQ if TX FIFO empty

26 UART_CTRL_IRQ_TX_NHALF

r/w

fire IRQ if TX not at least half full

27 -

r/-

reserved read as zero

28 UART_CTRL_RX_CLR

r/w

Clear RX FIFO, flag auto-clears

29 UART_CTRL_TX_CLR

r/w

Clear TX FIFO, flag auto-clears

30 UART_CTRL_RX_OVER

r/-

RX FIFO overflow; cleared by disabling the module

31 UART_CTRL_TX_BUSY

r/-

TX busy or TX FIFO not empty

0xfffff504

DATA

7:0 UART_DATA_RTX_MSB : UART_DATA_RTX_LSB

r/w

receive/transmit data

11:8 UART_DATA_RX_FIFO_SIZE_MSB : UART_DATA_RX_FIFO_SIZE_LSB

r/-

log2(RX FIFO size)

15:12 UART_DATA_TX_FIFO_SIZE_MSB : UART_DATA_TX_FIFO_SIZE_LSB

r/-

log2(RX FIFO size)

2.8.14. Secondary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART1)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_uart.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_uart.c

neorv32_uart.h

Top entity ports:

uart1_txd_o

serial transmitter output

uart1_rxd_i

serial receiver input

uart1_rts_o

flow control: RX ready to receive, low-active

uart1_cts_i

flow control: RX ready to receive, low-active

Configuration generics:

IO_UART1_EN

implement UART1 when true

UART1_RX_FIFO

RX FIFO depth (power of 2, min 1)

UART1_TX_FIFO

TX FIFO depth (power of 2, min 1)

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 4

RX interrupt

fast IRQ channel 5

TX interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The secondary UART (UART1) is functionally identical to the primary UART (Primary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART0)). Obviously, UART1 uses different addresses for the control register (CTRL) and the data register (DATA). The register’s bits/flags use the same bit positions and naming as for the primary UART. The RX and TX interrupts of UART1 are mapped to different CPU fast interrupt (FIRQ) channels.

Simulation Mode

The secondary UART (UART1) provides the same simulation options as the primary UART (UART0). However, output data is written to UART1-specific file neorv32.uart1_sim_mode.out. This data is also printed to the simulator console.

Register Map

Table 17. UART1 register map (struct NEORV32_UART1)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffff600

CTRL

…​

…​

Same as UART0

0xfffff604

DATA

…​

…​

Same as UART0

2.8.15. Serial Peripheral Interface Controller (SPI)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_spi.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_spi.c

neorv32_spi.h

Top entity ports:

spi_clk_o

1-bit serial clock output

spi_dat_o

1-bit serial data output

spi_dat_i

1-bit serial data input

spi_csn_o

8-bit dedicated chip select output (low-active)

Configuration generics:

IO_SPI_EN

implement SPI controller when true

IO_SPI_FIFO

FIFO depth, has to be a power of two, min 1

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 6

configurable SPI interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The NEORV32 SPI module is a host transceiver. Hence, it is responsible for generating transmission. The module operates on a byte.wide data granularity, supports all 4 standard clock modes, a fine-tunable SPI clock generator and provides up to 8 dedicated chip select signals via the top entity’s spi_csn_o signal. An optional receive/transmit ring-buffer/FIFO can be configured via the IO_SPI_FIFO generic to support block-based transmissions without CPU interaction.

Host-Mode Only
The NEORV32 SPI module only supports host mode. Transmission are initiated only by the processor’s SPI module and not by an external SPI module. If you are looking for a device-mode serial peripheral interface (transactions initiated by an external host) check out the Serial Data Interface Controller (SDI).

The SPI module provides a single control register CTRL to configure the module and to check it’s status and a single data register DATA for receiving/transmitting data.

Theory of Operation

The SPI module is enabled by setting the SPI_CTRL_EN bit in the CTRL control register. No transfer can be initiated and no interrupt request will be triggered if this bit is cleared. Clearing this bit will reset the entire module, clear the FIFO and terminate any transfer being in process.

The actual SPI transfer (receiving one byte while sending one byte) as well as control of the chip-select lines is handled via the module’s DATA register. Note that this register will access the TX FIFO of the ring-buffer when writing and will access the RX FIFO of the ring-buffer when reading.

The most significant bit of the DATA register (SPI_DATA_CMD) is used to select the purpose of the data being written. When the SPI_DATA_CMD is cleared, the lowest 8-bit represent the actual SPI TX data. This data will be transmitted by the SPI bus engine. After completion, the received data is stored to the RX FIFO.

If SPI_DATA_CMD is cleared, the lowest 4-bit control the chip-select lines. In this case, bis 2:0 select one of the eight chip-select lines. The selected line will become enabled when bit 3 is also set. If bit 3 is cleared, all chip-select lines will be disabled.

Examples:

  • Enable chip-select line 3: NEORV32_SPI→DATA = (1 << SPI_DATA_CMD) | (1 << 3) | 3;

  • Enable chip-select line 7: NEORV32_SPI→DATA = (1 << SPI_DATA_CMD) | (1 << 3) | 7;

  • Disable all chip-select lines: NEORV32_SPI→DATA = (1 << SPI_DATA_CMD) | (0 << 3);

  • Send data byte 0xAB: NEORV32_SPI→DATA = (0 << SPI_DATA_CMD) | 0xAB;

Since all SPI operations are controlled via the FIFO, entire SPI sequences (chip-enable, data transmissions, chip-disable) can be "programmed". Thus, SPI operations can be executed without any CPU interaction at all.

Application software can check if any chip-select is enabled by reading the control register’s SPI_CS_ACTIVE flag.

SPI Clock Configuration

The SPI module supports all standard SPI clock modes (0, 1, 2, 3), which are configured via the two control register bits SPI_CTRL_CPHA and SPI_CTRL_CPOL. The SPI_CTRL_CPHA bit defines the clock phase and the SPI_CTRL_CPOL bit defines the clock polarity.

The SPI clock frequency (spi_clk_o) is programmed by the 3-bit SPI_CTRL_PRSCx clock prescaler for a coarse clock selection and a 4-bit clock divider SPI_CTRL_CDIVx for a fine clock configuration. The following clock prescalers (SPI_CTRL_PRSCx) are available:

Table 18. SPI prescaler configuration
SPI_CTRL_PRSCx 0b000 0b001 0b010 0b011 0b100 0b101 0b110 0b111

Resulting clock_prescaler

2

4

8

64

128

1024

2048

4096

Based on the programmed clock configuration, the actual SPI clock frequency fSPI is derived from the processor’s main clock fmain according to the following equation:

fSPI = fmain[Hz] / (2 * clock_prescaler * (1 + SPI_CTRL_CDIVx))

Hence, the maximum SPI clock is fmain / 4 and the lowest SPI clock is fmain / 131072. The SPI clock is always symmetric having a duty cycle of exactly 50%.

High-Speed Mode

The SPI provides a high-speed mode to further boost the maximum SPI clock frequency. When enabled via the control register’s SPI_CTRL_HIGHSPEED bit the clock prescaler configuration (SPI_CTRL_PRSCx bits) is overridden setting it to a minimal factor of 1. However, the clock speed can still be fine-tuned using the SPI_CTRL_CDIVx bits.

fSPI = fmain[Hz] / (2 * 1 * (1 + SPI_CTRL_CDIVx))

Hence, the maximum SPI clock is fmain / 2 when in high-speed mode.

SPI Interrupt

The SPI module provides a set of programmable interrupt conditions based on the level of the RX/TX FIFO. The different interrupt sources are enabled by setting the according control register’s SPI_CTRL_IRQ_* bits. All enabled interrupt conditions are logically OR-ed, so any enabled interrupt source will trigger the module’s interrupt signal.

Once the SPI interrupt has fired it remains pending until the actual cause of the interrupt is resolved; for example if just the SPI_CTRL_IRQ_RX_AVAIL bit is set, the interrupt will keep firing until the RX FIFO is empty again.

Register Map

Table 19. SPI register map (struct NEORV32_SPI)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffff800

CTRL

0 SPI_CTRL_EN

r/w

SPI module enable

1 SPI_CTRL_CPHA

r/w

clock phase

2 SPI_CTRL_CPOL

r/w

clock polarity

5:3 SPI_CTRL_PRSC2 : SPI_CTRL_PRSC0

r/w

3-bit clock prescaler select

9:6 SPI_CTRL_CDIV2 : SPI_CTRL_CDIV0

r/w

4-bit clock divider for fine-tuning

10 SPI_CTRL_HIGHSPEED

r/w

high-speed mode enable (overriding SPI_CTRL_PRSC*)

15:11 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

16 SPI_CTRL_RX_AVAIL

r/-

RX FIFO data available (RX FIFO not empty)

17 SPI_CTRL_TX_EMPTY

r/-

TX FIFO empty

18 SPI_CTRL_TX_NHALF

r/-

TX FIFO not at least half full

19 SPI_CTRL_TX_FULL

r/-

TX FIFO full

20 SPI_CTRL_IRQ_RX_AVAIL

r/w

Trigger IRQ if RX FIFO not empty

21 SPI_CTRL_IRQ_TX_EMPTY

r/w

Trigger IRQ if TX FIFO empty

22 SPI_CTRL_IRQ_TX_NHALF

r/w

Trigger IRQ if TX FIFO not at least half full

23 SPI_CTRL_IRQ_IDLE

r/w

Trigger IRQ if TX FIFO is empty and SPI bus engine is idle

27:24 SPI_CTRL_FIFO_MSB : SPI_CTRL_FIFO_LSB

r/-

FIFO depth; log2(IO_SPI_FIFO)

30:28 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

30 SPI_CS_ACTIVE

r/-

Set if any chip-select line is active

31 SPI_CTRL_BUSY

r/-

SPI module busy when set (serial engine operation in progress and TX FIFO not empty yet)

0xfffff804

DATA

7:0 SPI_DATA_MSB : SPI_DATA_LSB

r/w

receive/transmit data (FIFO)

30:8 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

31 SPI_DATA_CMD

-/w

data (0) / chip-select-command (1) select

2.8.16. Serial Data Interface Controller (SDI)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_sdi.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_sdi.c

neorv32_sdi.h

Top entity ports:

sdi_clk_i

1-bit serial clock input

sdi_dat_o

1-bit serial data output

sdi_dat_i

1-bit serial data input

sdi_csn_i

1-bit chip-select input (low-active)

Configuration generics:

IO_SDI_EN

implement SDI controller when true

IO_SDI_FIFO

data FIFO size, has to a power of two, min 1

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 11

configurable SDI interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The serial data interface module provides a device-class SPI interface and allows to connect the processor to an external SPI host, which is responsible of performing the actual transmission - the SDI is entirely passive. An optional receive/transmit ring buffer (FIFOs) can be configured via the IO_SDI_FIFO generic to support block-based transmissions without CPU interaction.

Device-Mode Only
The NEORV32 SDI module only supports device mode. Transmission are initiated by an external host and not by the the processor itself. If you are looking for a host-mode serial peripheral interface (transactions performed by the NEORV32) check out the Serial Peripheral Interface Controller (SPI).

The SDI module provides a single control register CTRL to configure the module and to check it’s status and a single data register DATA for receiving/transmitting data. Any access to the DATA register actually accesses the internal ring buffer.

Theory of Operation

The SDI module is enabled by setting the SDI_CTRL_EN bit in the CTRL control register. Clearing this bit resets the entire module and will also clear the entire RX/TX ring buffer.

The SDI operates on byte-level only. Data written to the DATA register will be pushed to the TX FIFO. Received data can be retrieved by reading the RX FIFO via the DATA register. The current state of these FIFOs is available via the control register’s SDI_CTRL_RX_* and SDI_CTRL_TX_* flags. If no data is available in the TX FIFO while an external device performs a transmission the external device will read all-zero from the SDI controller.

Application software can check the current state of the SDI chip-select input via the control register’s SDI_CTRL_CS_ACTIVE flag (the flag is set when the chip-select line is active (pulled low)).

MSB-first Only
The NEORV32 SDI module only supports MSB-first mode.
In-Transmission Abort
If the external SPI controller aborts the transmission by setting the chip-select signal high again before 8 data bits have been transferred, no data is written to the RX FIFO.

SDI Clocking

The SDI module supports both SPI clock polarity modes ("CPOL") but only "CPHA=0"-clock-phase is officially supported yet. However, experiments have shown that the SDI module can also deal with both clock phase modes (for slow SDI clock speeds).

All SDI operations are clocked by the external sdi_clk_i signal. This signal is synchronized to the processor’s clock domain to simplify timing behavior. This clock synchronization requires the external SDI clock (sdi_clk_i) does not exceed 1/4 of the processor’s main clock.

SDI Interrupt

The SDI module provides a set of programmable interrupt conditions based on the level of the RX & TX FIFOs. The different interrupt sources are enabled by setting the according control register’s SDI_CTRL_IRQ_* bits. All enabled interrupt conditions are logically OR-ed so any enabled interrupt source will trigger the module’s interrupt signal.

Once the SDI interrupt has fired it will remain active until the actual cause of the interrupt is resolved; for example if just the SDI_CTRL_IRQ_RX_AVAIL bit is set, the interrupt will keep firing until the RX FIFO is empty again.

Register Map

Table 20. SDI register map (struct NEORV32_SDI)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffff700

CTRL

0 SDI_CTRL_EN

r/w

SDI module enable

3:1 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

7:4 SDI_CTRL_FIFO_MSB : SDI_CTRL_FIFO_LSB

r/-

FIFO depth; log2(IO_SDI_FIFO)

14:8 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

15 SDI_CTRL_IRQ_RX_AVAIL

r/w

fire interrupt if RX FIFO is not empty

16 SDI_CTRL_IRQ_RX_HALF

r/w

fire interrupt if RX FIFO is at least half full

17 SDI_CTRL_IRQ_RX_FULL

r/w

fire interrupt if if RX FIFO is full

18 SDI_CTRL_IRQ_TX_EMPTY

r/w

fire interrupt if TX FIFO is empty

19 SDI_CTRL_IRQ_TX_NHALF

r/w

fire interrupt if TX FIFO is not at least half full

22:20 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

23 SDI_CTRL_RX_AVAIL

r/-

RX FIFO data available (RX FIFO not empty)

24 SDI_CTRL_RX_HALF

r/-

RX FIFO at least half full

25 SDI_CTRL_RX_FULL

r/-

RX FIFO full

26 SDI_CTRL_TX_EMPTY

r/-

TX FIFO empty

27 SDI_CTRL_TX_NHALF

r/-

TX FIFO not at least half full

28 SDI_CTRL_TX_FULL

r/-

TX FIFO full

30:29 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

31 SDI_CTRL_CS_ACTIVE

r/-

Chip-select is active when set

0xfffff704

DATA

7:0

r/w

receive/transmit data (FIFO)

31:8 reserved

r/-

reserved, read as zero

2.8.17. Two-Wire Serial Interface Controller (TWI)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_twi.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_twi.c

neorv32_twi.h

Top entity ports:

twi_sda_i

1-bit serial data line sense input

twi_sda_o

1-bit serial data line output (pull low only)

twi_scl_i

1-bit serial clock line sense input

twi_scl_o

1-bit serial clock line output (pull low only)

Configuration generics:

IO_TWI_EN

implement TWI controller when true

IO_TWI_FIFO

FIFO depth, has to be a power of two, min 1

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 7

FIFO empty and module idle interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The NEORV32 TWI implements an I2C-compatible host controller to communicate with arbitrary I2C-devices. Note that peripheral-mode (controller acts as a device) and multi-controller mode are not supported yet.

The TWI controller provides two memory-mapped registers that are used for configuring the module and for triggering operation: CTRL is the control and status register, DCMD is the command and data register.

Key features:

  • Programmable clock speed

  • Optional clock stretching

  • Generate START / repeated-START and STOP conditions

  • Sending & receiving 8 data bits including ACK/NACK

  • Generating a host-ACK (ACK send by the TWI controller)

  • Configurable data/command FIFO to "program" large TWI sequences without further involvement of the CPU

Tristate Drivers

The TWI module requires two tristate drivers (actually: open-drain drivers; signals can only be actively driven low) for the SDA and SCL lines, which have to be implemented by the user in the setup’s top module / IO ring. A generic VHDL example is shown below (here, sda_io and scl_io are the actual TWI bus lines, which are of type std_logic).

Listing 7. TWI VHDL Tristate Driver Example
sda_io    <= '0' when (twi_sda_o = '0') else 'Z'; -- drive
scl_io    <= '0' when (twi_scl_o = '0') else 'Z'; -- drive
twi_sda_i <= std_ulogic(sda_io); -- sense
twi_scl_i <= std_ulogic(scl_io); -- sense

TWI Clock Speed

The TWI clock frequency is programmed by two bit-fields in the device’s control register CTRL: a 3-bit TWI_CTRL_PRSCx clock prescaler is sued for a coarse clock configuration and a 4-bit clock divider TWI_CTRL_CDIVx is used for a fine clock configuration.

Table 21. TWI prescaler configuration
TWI_CTRL_PRSCx 0b000 0b001 0b010 0b011 0b100 0b101 0b110 0b111

Resulting clock_prescaler

2

4

8

64

128

1024

2048

4096

Based on the clock configuration, the actual TWI clock frequency fSCL is derived from the processor’s main clock fmain according to the following equation:

fSCL = fmain[Hz] / (4 * clock_prescaler * (1 + TWI_CTRL_CDIV))

Hence, the maximum TWI clock is fmain / 8 and the lowest TWI clock is fmain / 262144. The generated TWI clock is always symmetric having a duty cycle of exactly 50%.

Clock Stretching
An accessed peripheral can slow down/halt the controller’s bus clock by using clock stretching (= actively keeping the SCL line low). The controller will halt operation in this case. Clock stretching is enabled by setting the TWI_CTRL_CLKSTR bit in the module’s control register CTRL.

TWI Transfers

The TWI is enabled via the TWI_CTRL_EN bit in the CTRL control register. All TWI operations are controlled by the DCMD register. The actual operation is selected by a 2-bit value that is written to the register’s TWI_DCMD_CMD_* bit-field:

  • 00: NOP (no-operation); all further bit-fields in DCMD are ignored

  • 01: Generate a (repeated) START conditions; all further bit-fields in DCMD are ignored

  • 10: Generate a STOP conditions; all further bit-fields in DCMD are ignored

  • 11: Trigger a data transmission; the data to be send has to be written to the register’s TWI_DCMD_MSB : TWI_DCMD_LSB bit-field; if TWI_DCMD_ACK is set the controller will send a host-ACK in the ACK/NACK time slot; after the transmission is completed TWI_DCMD_MSB : TWI_DCMD_LSB contains the RX data and TWI_DCMD_ACK the device’s response if no host-ACK was configured (0 = ACK, 1 = ACK)

All operations/data written to the DCMD register are buffered by a configurable data/command FIFO. The depth of the FIFO is configured by the IO_TWI_FIFO top generic. Software can retrieve this size by reading the control register’s TWI_CTRL_FIFO bits.

The command/data FIFO is internally split into a TX FIFO and a RX FIFO. Writing to DCMD will write to the TX FIFO while reading from DCMD will read from the RX FIFO. The TX FIFO is full when the TWI_CTRL_TX_FULL flag is set. Accordingly, the RX FIFO contains valid data when the TWI_CTRL_RX_AVAIL flag is set.

The control register’s busy flag TWI_CTRL_BUSY is set as long as the TX FIFO contains valid data (i.e. programmed TWI operations that have not been executed yet) or of the TWI bus engine is still processing an operation.

An active transmission can be terminated at any time by disabling the TWI module. This will also clear the data/command FIFO.
When reading data from a device, an all-one byte (0xFF) has to be written to TWI data register NEORV32_TWI.DATA so the accessed device can actively pull-down SDA when required.

TWI Interrupt

The TWI module provides a single interrupt to signal "idle condition" to the CPU. The interrupt becomes active when the TWI module is enabled (TWI_CTRL_EN = 1) and the TX FIFO is empty and the TWI bus engine is idle.

Register Map

Table 22. TWI register map (struct NEORV32_TWI)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffff900

CTRL

0 TWI_CTRL_EN

r/w

TWI enable, reset if cleared

3:1 TWI_CTRL_PRSC2 : TWI_CTRL_PRSC0

r/w

3-bit clock prescaler select

7:4 TWI_CTRL_CDIV3 : TWI_CTRL_CDIV0

r/w

4-bit clock divider

8 TWI_CTRL_CLKSTR

r/w

Enable (allow) clock stretching

14:9 -

r/-

reserved, read as zero

18:15 TWI_CTRL_FIFO_MSB : TWI_CTRL_FIFO_LSB

r/-

FIFO depth; log2(IO_TWI_FIFO)

28:12 -

r/-

reserved, read as zero

29 TWI_CTRL_TX_FULL

r/-

set if the TWI bus is claimed by any controller

30 TWI_CTRL_RX_AVAIL

r/-

RX FIFO data available

31 TWI_CTRL_BUSY

r/-

TWI bus engine busy or TX FIFO not empty

0xfffff904

DCMD

7:0 TWI_DCMD_MSB : TWI_DCMD_LSB

r/w

RX/TX data byte

8 TWI_DCMD_ACK

r/w

write: ACK bit sent by controller; read: 1 = device NACK, 0 = device ACK

10:9 TWI_DCMD_CMD_HI : TWI_DCMD_CMD_LO

r/w

TWI operation (00 = NOP, 01 = START conditions, 10 = STOP condition, 11 = data transmission)

2.8.18. One-Wire Serial Interface Controller (ONEWIRE)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_onewire.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_onewire.c

neorv32_onewire.h

Top entity ports:

onewire_i

1-bit 1-wire bus sense input

onewire_o

1-bit 1-wire bus output (pull low only)

Configuration generics:

IO_ONEWIRE_EN

implement ONEWIRE interface controller when true

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 13

operation done interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The NEORV32 ONEWIRE module implements a single-wire interface controller that is compatible to the Dallas/Maxim 1-Wire protocol, which is an asynchronous half-duplex bus requiring only a single signal wire connected to onewire_io (plus ground).

The bus is based on a single open-drain signal. The controller and all the devices can only pull-down the bus actively. Hence, an external pull-up resistor is required. Recommended values are between 1kΩ and 4kΩ depending on the bus characteristics (wire length, number of devices, etc.). Furthermore, a series resistor (~100Ω) at the controller side is recommended to control the slew rate and to reduce signal reflections. Also, additional external ESD protection clamp diodes should be added to the bus line.

Tri-State Drivers

The ONEWIRE module requires a tri-state driver (actually, open-drain) for the 1-wire bus line, which has to be implemented in the top module of the setup. A generic VHDL example is given below (onewire is the actual 1-wire bus signal, which is of type std_logic).

Listing 8. ONEWIRE VHDL tri-state driver example
onewire   <= '0' when (onewire_o = '0') else 'Z'; -- drive
onewire_i <= std_ulogic(onewire); -- sense

Theory of Operation

The ONEWIRE controller provides two interface registers: CTRL and DATA. The control registers (CTRL) is used to configure the module, to trigger bus transactions and to monitor the current state of the module. The DATA register is used to read/write data from/to the bus.

The module is enabled by setting the ONEWIRE_CTRL_EN bit in the control register. If this bit is cleared, the module is automatically reset and the bus is brought to high-level (due to the external pull-up resistor). The basic timing configuration is programmed via the clock prescaler bits ONEWIRE_CTRL_PRSCx and the clock divider bits ONEWIRE_CTRL_CLKDIVx (see next section).

The controller can execute three basic bus operations, which are triggered by setting one out of three specific control register bits (the bits auto-clear):

  1. generate reset pulse and check for device presence; triggered when setting ONEWIRE_CTRL_TRIG_RST

  2. transfer a single-bit (read-while-write); triggered when setting ONEWIRE_CTRL_TRIG_BIT

  3. transfer a full-byte (read-while-write); triggered when setting ONEWIRE_CTRL_TRIG_BYTE

Only one trigger bit may be set at once, otherwise undefined behavior might occur.

When a single-bit operation has been triggered, the data previously written to DATA[0] will be send to the bus and DATA[7] will be sampled from the bus. Accordingly, a full-byte transmission will send the previously byte written to DATA[7:0] to the bus and will update DATA[7:0] with the data read from the bus (LSB-first). The triggered operation has completed when the module’s busy flag ONEWIRE_CTRL_BUSY has cleared again.

Read from Bus
In order to read a single bit from the bus DATA[0] has to set to 1 before triggering the bit transmission operation to allow the accessed device to pull-down the bus. Accordingly, DATA has to be set to 0xFF before triggering the byte transmission operation when the controller shall read a byte from the bus.

The ONEWIRE_CTRL_PRESENCE bit gets set if at least one device has send a "presence" signal right after the reset pulse.

Bus Timing

The control register provides a 2-bit clock prescaler select (ONEWIRE_CTRL_PRSCx) and a 8-bit clock divider (ONEWIRE_CTRL_CLKDIVx) for timing configuration. Both are used to define the elementary base time Tbase. All bus operations are timed using multiples of this elementary base time.

Table 23. ONEWIRE Clock Prescaler Configurations
ONEWIRE_CTRL_PRSCx 0b00 0b01 0b10 0b11

Resulting clock_prescaler

2

4

8

64

Together with the clock divider value (ONEWIRE_CTRL_PRSCx bits = clock_divider) the base time is defined by the following formula:

Tbase = (1 / fmain[Hz]) * clock_prescaler * (clock_divider + 1)

Example:

  • fmain = 100MHz

  • clock prescaler select = 0b01clock_prescaler = 4

  • clock divider clock_divider = 249

Tbase = (1 / 100000000Hz) * 4 * (249 + 1) = 10000ns = 10µs

The base time is used to coordinate all bus interactions. Hence, all delays, time slots and points in time are quantized as multiples of the base time. The following images show the two basic operations of the ONEWIRE controller: single-bit (0 or 1) transaction and reset with presence detect. The relevant points in time are shown as absolute time (in multiples of the time base) with the bus' falling edge as reference point.

onewire data
onewire reset

Single-bit data transmission (not to scale)

Reset pulse and presence detect (not to scale)

Table 24. Data Transmission Timing
Symbol Description Multiples of Tbase Time when Tbase = 10µs

Single-bit data transmission

t0 (a→b)

Time until end of active low-phase when writing a '1' or when reading

1

10µs

t1 (a→c)

Time until controller samples bus state (read operation)

2

20µs

t2 (a→d)

Time until end of bit time slot (when writing a '0' or when reading)

7

70µs

t3 (a→e)

Time until end of inter-slot pause (= total duration of one bit)

9

90µs

Reset pulse and presence detect

t4 (f→g)

Time until end of active reset pulse

48

480µs

t5 (f→h)

Time until controller samples bus presence

55

550µs

t6 (f→i)

Time until end of presence phase

96

960µs

The default values for base time multiples were chosen to for stable and reliable bus operation (not for maximum throughput).

The absolute points in time are hardwired by the VHDL code and cannot be changed during runtime. However, the timing parameter can be customized by editing the ONEWIRE’s VHDL source file:

Listing 9. Hardwired time configuration in neorv32_onewire.vhd
-- timing configuration (absolute time in multiples of the base tick time t_base) --
constant t_write_one_c       : unsigned(6 downto 0) := to_unsigned( 1, 7); -- t0
constant t_read_sample_c     : unsigned(6 downto 0) := to_unsigned( 2, 7); -- t1
constant t_slot_end_c        : unsigned(6 downto 0) := to_unsigned( 7, 7); -- t2
constant t_pause_end_c       : unsigned(6 downto 0) := to_unsigned( 9, 7); -- t3
constant t_reset_end_c       : unsigned(6 downto 0) := to_unsigned(48, 7); -- t4
constant t_presence_sample_c : unsigned(6 downto 0) := to_unsigned(55, 7); -- t5
constant t_presence_end_c    : unsigned(6 downto 0) := to_unsigned(96, 7); -- t6
Overdrive
The ONEWIRE controller does not support the overdrive mode. However, it can be implemented by reducing the base time Tbase (and by eventually changing the hardwired timing configuration in the VHDL source file).

Interrupt

A single interrupt is provided by the ONEWIRE module to signal "idle" condition to the CPU. Whenever the controller is idle (again) the interrupt becomes active.

Register Map

Table 25. ONEWIRE register map (struct NEORV32_ONEWIRE)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffff200

CTRL

0 ONEWIRE_CTRL_EN

r/w

ONEWIRE enable, reset if cleared

2:1 ONEWIRE_CTRL_PRSC1 : ONEWIRE_CTRL_PRSC0

r/w

2-bit clock prescaler select

10:3 ONEWIRE_CTRL_CLKDIV7 : ONEWIRE_CTRL_CLKDIV0

r/w

8-bit clock divider value

11 ONEWIRE_CTRL_TRIG_RST

-/w

trigger reset pulse, auto-clears

12 ONEWIRE_CTRL_TRIG_BIT

-/w

trigger single bit transmission, auto-clears

13 ONEWIRE_CTRL_TRIG_BYTE

-/w

trigger full-byte transmission, auto-clears

28:14 -

r/-

reserved, read as zero

29 ONEWIRE_CTRL_SENSE

r/-

current state of the bus line

30 ONEWIRE_CTRL_PRESENCE

r/-

device presence detected after reset pulse

31 ONEWIRE_CTRL_BUSY

r/-

operation in progress when set

0xfffff204

DATA

7:0 ONEWIRE_DATA_MSB : ONEWIRE_DATA_LSB

r/w

receive/transmit data (8-bit)

2.8.19. Pulse-Width Modulation Controller (PWM)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_pwm.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_pwm.c

neorv32_pwm.h

Top entity ports:

pwm_o

PWM output channels (16-bit)

Configuration generics:

IO_PWM_NUM_CH

number of PWM channels to implement (0..16)

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The PWM module implements a pulse-width modulation controller with up to 16 independent channels. Duty cycle and carrier frequency can be programmed individually for each channel.The total number of implemented channels is defined by the IO_PWM_NUM_CH generic. The PWM output signal pwm_o has a static size of 16-bit. Channel 0 corresponds to bit 0, channel 1 to bit 1 and so on. If less than 16 channels are configured, only the LSB-aligned channel bits are connected while the remaining ones are hardwired to zero.

Theory of Operation

Depending on the configured number channels, the PWM module provides 16 configuration registers CHANNEL_CFG[0] to CHANNEL_CFG[15] - one for each channel. Regardless of the configuration of IO_PWM_NUM_CH all channel registers can be accessed without raising an exception. However, registers above IO_PWM_NUM_CH-1 are read-only and hardwired to all-zero.

Each configuration provides a 1-bit enable flag to enable/disable the according channel, an 8-bit register for setting the duty cycle and a 3-bit clock prescaler select as well as a 10-bit clock diver for coarse and fine tuning of the carrier frequency, respectively.

A channel is enabled by setting the PWM_CFG_EN bit. If this bit is cleared the according PWM output is set to zero. The duty cycle is programmed via the 8 PWM_CFG_DUTY bits. Based on the value programmed to this bits the duty cycle the resulting duty cycle of the according channel can be computed by the following formula:

Duty Cycle[%] = PWM_CFG_DUTY / 28

The PWM period (carrier frequency) is derived from the processor’s main clock (fmain). The PWM_CFG_PRSC register bits allow to select one out of eight pre-defined clock prescalers for a coarse clock scaling. The 10 PWM_CFG_CDIV register bits can be used to apply another fine clock scaling.

Table 26. PWM prescaler configuration
PWM_CFG_PRSC 0b000 0b001 0b010 0b011 0b100 0b101 0b110 0b111

Resulting clock_prescaler

2

4

8

64

128

1024

2048

4096

The resulting PWM carrier frequency is defined by:

fPWM[Hz] = fmain[Hz] / (28 * clock_prescaler * (1 + PWM_CFG_CDIV))

Register Map

Table 27. PWM register map (struct neorv32_pwm_t)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffff000

CHANNEL_CFG[0]

31 - PWM_CFG_EN

r/w

Channel 0: channel enabled when set

30:28 - PWM_CFG_PRSC_MSB:PWM_CFG_PRSC_LSB

r/w

Channel 0: 3-bit clock prescaler select

27:18

r/-

Channel 0: reserved, hardwired to zero

17:8 - PWM_CFG_CDIV_MSB:PWM_CFG_CDIV_LSB

r/w

Channel 0: 10-bit clock divider

7:0 - PWM_CFG_DUTY_MSB:PWM_CFG_DUTY_LSB

r/w

Channel 0: 8-bit duty cycle

0xfffff004 …​ 0xfffff038

CHANNEL_CFG[1] …​ CHANNEL_CFG[14]

…​

r/w

Channels 1 to 14

0xfffff03C

CHANNEL_CFG[15]

31 - PWM_CFG_EN

r/w

Channel 15: channel enabled when set

30:28 - PWM_CFG_PRSC_MSB:PWM_CFG_PRSC_LSB

r/w

Channel 15: 3-bit clock prescaler select

27:18

r/-

Channel 15: reserved, hardwired to zero

17:8 - PWM_CFG_CDIV_MSB:PWM_CFG_CDIV_LSB

r/w

Channel 15: 10-bit clock divider

7:0 - PWM_CFG_DUTY_MSB:PWM_CFG_DUTY_LSB

r/w

Channel 15: 8-bit duty cycle

2.8.20. True Random-Number Generator (TRNG)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_trng.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_trng.c

neorv32_trng.h

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

IO_TRNG_EN

implement TRNG when true

IO_TRNG_FIFO

data FIFO depth, min 1, has to be a power of two

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 0

TRNG data available interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The NEORV32 true random number generator provides physically true random numbers. It is based on free-running ring-oscillators that generate phase noise when being sampled by a constant clock. This phase noise is used as physical entropy source. The TRNG features a platform independent architecture without FPGA-specific primitives, macros or attributes so it can be synthesized for any FPGA.

In-Depth Documentation
For more information about the neoTRNG architecture and an analysis of its random quality check out the neoTRNG repository: https://github.com/stnolting/neoTRNG
Inferring Latches
The synthesis tool might emit warnings regarding inferred latches or combinatorial loops. However, this is not design flaw as this is exactly what we want. ;)
Simulation
When simulating the processor the TRNG is automatically set to "simulation mode". In this mode the physical entropy sources (the ring oscillators) are replaced by a simple pseudo RNG based on a LFSR providing only deterministic pseudo-random data. The TRNG_CTRL_SIM_MODE flag of the control register is set if simulation mode is active.

Theory of Operation

The TRNG features a single control register CTRL for control, status check and data access. When the TRNG_CTRL_EN bit is set, the TRNG is enabled and starts operation. As soon as the TRNG_CTRL_VALID bit is set a new random data byte is available and can be obtained from the lowest 8 bits of the CTRL register. If this bit is cleared, there is no valid data available and the lowest 8 bit of the CTRL register are set to all-zero.

An internal entropy FIFO can be configured using the IO_TRNG_FIFO generic. This FIFO automatically samples new random data from the TRNG to provide some kind of random data pool for applications, which require a large number of random data in a short time. The random data FIFO can be cleared at any time either by disabling the TRNG or by setting the TRNG_CTRL_FIFO_CLR flag. The FIFO depth can be retrieved by software via the TRNG_CTRL_FIFO_* bits.

TRNG Interrupt

As the neoTRNG is a rather slow entropy source, a "data available" interrupt is provided to inform the application software that new random data is available. This interrupt can be trigger by either of two conditions: trigger the interrupt if any random data is available (i.e. the data FIFO is not empty; TRNG_CTRL_IRQ_SEL = 0) or trigger the interrupt if the random pool is full (i.e. the data FIFO is full; TRNG_CTRL_IRQ_SEL = 1). Once the TRNG interrupt has fired it remains pending until the actual cause of the interrupt is resolved.

Register Map

Table 28. TRNG register map (struct NEORV32_TRNG)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffffa00

CTRL

7:0 TRNG_CTRL_DATA_MSB : TRNG_CTRL_DATA_MSB

r/-

8-bit random data

15:8 -

r/-

reserved, read as zero

19:16 TRNG_CTRL_FIFO_MSB : TRNG_CTRL_FIFO_MSB

r/-

FIFO depth, log2(IO_TRNG_FIFO)

27:20 -

r/-

reserved, read as zero

27 TRNG_CTRL_IRQ_SEL

r/w

interrupt trigger select (0 = data available, 1 = FIFO full)

28 TRNG_CTRL_FIFO_CLR

-/w

flush random data FIFO when set; flag auto-clears

29 TRNG_CTRL_SIM_MODE

r/-

simulation mode (PRNG!)

30 TRNG_CTRL_EN

r/w

TRNG enable

31 TRNG_CTRL_VALID

r/-

random data is valid when set

2.8.21. Custom Functions Subsystem (CFS)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_cfs.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_cfs.c

neorv32_cfs.h

Top entity ports:

cfs_in_i

custom input conduit

cfs_out_o

custom output conduit

Configuration generics:

IO_CFS_EN

implement CFS when true

IO_CFS_CONFIG

custom generic conduit

IO_CFS_IN_SIZE

size of cfs_in_i

IO_CFS_OUT_SIZE

size of cfs_out_o

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 1

CFS interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The custom functions subsystem is meant for implementing custom tightly-coupled co-processors or interfaces. IT provides up to 64 32-bit memory-mapped read/write registers (REG, see register map below) that can be accessed by the CPU via normal load/store operations. The actual functionality of these register has to be defined by the hardware designer. Furthermore, the CFS provides two IO conduits to implement custom on-chip or off-chip interfaces.

Just like any other externally-connected IP, logic implemented within the custom functions subsystem can operate independently of the CPU providing true parallel processing capabilities. Potential use cases might include dedicated hardware accelerators for en-/decryption (AES), signal processing (FFT) or AI applications (CNNs) as well as custom IO systems like fast memory interfaces (DDR) and mass storage (SDIO), networking (CAN) or real-time data transport (I2S).

If you like to implement custom instructions that are executed right within the CPU’s ALU see the Zxcfu ISA Extension and the according Custom Functions Unit (CFU).
Take a look at the template CFS VHDL source file (rtl/core/neorv32_cfs.vhd). The file is highly commented to illustrate all aspects that are relevant for implementing custom CFS-based co-processor designs.
The CFS can also be used to replicate existing NEORV32 modules - for example to implement several TWI controllers.

CFS Software Access

The CFS memory-mapped registers can be accessed by software using the provided C-language aliases (see register map table below). Note that all interface registers are defined as 32-bit words of type uint32_t.

Listing 10. CFS Software Access Example
// C-code CFS usage example
NEORV32_CFS->REG[0] = (uint32_t)some_data_array(i); // write to CFS register 0
int temp = (int)NEORV32_CFS->REG[20]; // read from CFS register 20

CFS Interrupt

The CFS provides a single high-level-triggered interrupt request signal mapped to the CPU’s fast interrupt channel 1.

CFS Configuration Generic

By default, the CFS provides a single 32-bit std_ulogic_vector configuration generic IO_CFS_CONFIG that is available in the processor’s top entity. This generic can be used to pass custom configuration options from the top entity directly down to the CFS. The actual definition of the generic and it’s usage inside the CFS is left to the hardware designer.

CFS Custom IOs

By default, the CFS also provides two unidirectional input and output conduits cfs_in_i and cfs_out_o. These signals are directly propagated to the processor’s top entity. These conduits can be used to implement application-specific interfaces like memory or peripheral connections. The actual use case of these signals has to be defined by the hardware designer.

The size of the input signal conduit cfs_in_i is defined via the top’s IO_CFS_IN_SIZE configuration generic (default = 32-bit). The size of the output signal conduit cfs_out_o is defined via the top’s IO_CFS_OUT_SIZE configuration generic (default = 32-bit). If the custom function subsystem is not implemented (IO_CFS_EN = false) the cfs_out_o signal is tied to all-zero.

If the CFU output signals are to be used outside the chip, it is recommended to register these signals.

Register Map

Table 29. CFS register map (struct NEORV32_CFS)
Address Name [C] Bit(s) R/W Function

0xffffeb00

REG[0]

31:0

(r)/(w)

custom CFS register 0

0xffffeb04

REG[1]

31:0

(r)/(w)

custom CFS register 1

…​

…​

31:0

(r)/(w)

…​

0xffffebf8

REG[62]

31:0

(r)/(w)

custom CFS register 62

0xffffebfc

REG[63]

31:0

(r)/(w)

custom CFS register 63

2.8.22. Smart LED Interface (NEOLED)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_neoled.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_neoled.c

neorv32_neoled.h

Top entity ports:

neoled_o

1-bit serial data output

Configuration generics:

IO_NEOLED_EN

implement NEOLED controller when true

IO_NEOLED_TX_FIFO

TX FIFO depth, has to be a power of 2, min 1

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 9

configurable NEOLED data FIFO interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The NEOLED module provides a dedicated interface for "smart RGB LEDs" like WS2812, WS2811 or any other compatible LEDs. These LEDs provide a single-wire interface that uses an asynchronous serial protocol for transmitting color data. Using the NEOLED module allows CPU-independent operation of an arbitrary number of smart LEDs. A configurable data buffer (FIFO) allows to utilize block transfer operation without requiring the CPU.

The NEOLED interface is compatible to the "Adafruit Industries NeoPixel™" products, which feature WS2812 (or older WS2811) smart LEDs. Other LEDs might be compatible as well when adjusting the controller’s programmable timing configuration.

The interface provides a single 1-bit output neoled_o to drive an arbitrary number of cascaded LEDs. Since the NEOLED module provides 24-bit and 32-bit operating modes, a mixed setup with RGB LEDs (24-bit color) and RGBW LEDs (32-bit color including a dedicated white LED chip) is possible.

Theory of Operation

The NEOLED modules provides two accessible interface registers: the control register CTRL and the write-only TX data register DATA. The NEOLED module is globally enabled via the control register’s NEOLED_CTRL_EN bit. Clearing this bit will terminate any current operation, clear the TX buffer, reset the module and set the neoled_o output to zero. The precise timing (e.g. implementing the WS2812 protocol) and transmission mode are fully programmable via the CTRL register to provide maximum flexibility.

RGB / RGBW Configuration

NeoPixel™ LEDs are available in two "color" version: LEDs with three chips providing RGB color and LEDs with four chips providing RGB color plus a dedicated white LED chip (= RGBW). Since the intensity of every LED chip is defined via an 8-bit value the RGB LEDs require a frame of 24-bit per module and the RGBW LEDs require a frame of 32-bit per module.

The data transfer quantity of the NEOLED module can be programmed via the NEOLED_MODE_EN control register bit. If this bit is cleared, the NEOLED interface operates in 24-bit mode and will transmit bits 23:0 of the data written to DATA to the LEDs. If NEOLED_MODE_EN is set, the NEOLED interface operates in 32-bit mode and will transmit bits 31:0 of the data written to DATA to the LEDs.

The mode bit can be reconfigured before writing a new data word to DATA in order to support an arbitrary setup/mixture of RGB and RGBW LEDs.

Protocol

The interface of the WS2812 LEDs uses an 800kHz carrier signal. Data is transmitted in a serial manner starting with LSB-first. The intensity for each R, G & B (& W) LED chip (= color code) is defined via an 8-bit value. The actual data bits are transferred by modifying the duty cycle of the signal (the timings for the WS2812 are shown below). A RESET command is "send" by pulling the data line LOW for at least 50μs.

neopixel timing
Figure 7. WS2812 bit-level timing (timing does not scale)
Table 30. WS2812 interface timing

Ttotal (Tcarrier)

1.25μs +/- 300ns

period for a single bit

T0H

0.4μs +/- 150ns

high-time for sending a 1

T0L

0.8μs +/- 150ns

low-time for sending a 1

T1H

0.85μs +/- 150ns

high-time for sending a 0

T1L

0.45μs +/- 150 ns

low-time for sending a 0

RESET

Above 50μs

low-time for sending a RESET command

Timing Configuration

The basic carrier frequency (800kHz for the WS2812 LEDs) is configured via a 3-bit main clock prescaler (NEOLED_CTRL_PRSC*, see table below) that scales the main processor clock fmain and a 5-bit cycle multiplier NEOLED_CTRL_T_TOT_*.

Table 31. NEOLED Prescaler Configuration
NEOLED_CTRL_PRSCx 0b000 0b001 0b010 0b011 0b100 0b101 0b110 0b111

Resulting clock_prescaler

2

4

8

64

128

1024

2048

4096

The duty-cycles (or more precisely: the high- and low-times for sending either a '1' bit or a '0' bit) are defined via the 5-bit NEOLED_CTRL_T_ONE_H_* and NEOLED_CTRL_T_ZERO_H_* values, respectively. These programmable timing constants allow to adapt the interface for a wide variety of smart LED protocol (for example WS2812 vs. WS2811).

Timing Configuration - Example (WS2812)

Generate the base clock fTX for the NEOLED TX engine:

  • processor clock fmain = 100 MHz

  • NEOLED_CTRL_PRSCx = 0b001 = fmain / 4

fTX = fmain[Hz] / clock_prescaler = 100MHz / 4 = 25MHz

TTX = 1 / fTX = 40ns

Generate carrier period (Tcarrier) and high-times (duty cycle) for sending 0 (T0H) and 1 (T1H) bits:

  • NEOLED_CTRL_T_TOT = 0b11110 (= decimal 30)

  • NEOLED_CTRL_T_ZERO_H = 0b01010 (= decimal 10)

  • NEOLED_CTRL_T_ONE_H = 0b10100 (= decimal 20)

Tcarrier = TTX * NEOLED_CTRL_T_TOT = 40ns * 30 = 1.4µs

T0H = TTX * NEOLED_CTRL_T_ZERO_H = 40ns * 10 = 0.4µs

T1H = TTX * NEOLED_CTRL_T_ONE_H = 40ns * 20 = 0.8µs

The NEOLED SW driver library (neorv32_neoled.h) provides a simplified configuration function that configures all timing parameters for driving WS2812 LEDs based on the processor clock frequency.

TX Data FIFO

The interface features a configurable TX data buffer (a FIFO) to allow more CPU-independent operation. The buffer depth is configured via the IO_NEOLED_TX_FIFO top generic (default = 1 entry). The FIFO size configuration can be read via the NEOLED_CTRL_BUFS_x control register bits, which result log2(IO_NEOLED_TX_FIFO).

When writing data to the DATA register the data is automatically written to the TX buffer. Whenever data is available in the buffer the serial transmission engine will take and transmit it to the LEDs. The data transfer size (NEOLED_MODE_EN) can be modified at any time since this control register bit is also buffered in the FIFO. This allows an arbitrary mix of RGB and RGBW LEDs in the chain.

Software can check the FIFO fill level via the control register’s NEOLED_CTRL_TX_EMPTY, NEOLED_CTRL_TX_HALF and NEOLED_CTRL_TX_FULL flags. The NEOLED_CTRL_TX_BUSY flags provides additional information if the the serial transmit engine is still busy sending data.

Please note that the timing configurations (NEOLED_CTRL_PRSCx, NEOLED_CTRL_T_TOT_x, NEOLED_CTRL_T_ONE_H_x and NEOLED_CTRL_T_ZERO_H_x) are NOT stored to the buffer. Changing these value while the buffer is not empty or the TX engine is still busy will cause data corruption.

Strobe Command ("RESET")

According to the WS2812 specs the data written to the LED’s shift registers is strobed to the actual PWM driver registers when the data line is low for 50μs ("RESET" command, see table above). This can be implemented using busy-wait for at least 50μs. Obviously, this concept wastes a lot of processing power.

To circumvent this, the NEOLED module provides an option to automatically issue an idle time for creating the RESET command. If the NEOLED_CTRL_STROBE control register bit is set, all data written to the data FIFO (via DATA, the actually written data is irrelevant) will trigger an idle phase (neoled_o = zero) of 127 periods (= Tcarrier). This idle time will cause the LEDs to strobe the color data into the PWM driver registers.

Since the NEOLED_CTRL_STROBE flag is also buffered in the TX buffer, the RESET command is treated just as another data word being written to the TX buffer making busy wait concepts obsolete and allowing maximum refresh rates.

NEOLED Interrupt

The NEOLED modules features a single interrupt that triggers based on the current TX buffer fill level. The interrupt can only become pending if the NEOLED module is enabled. The specific interrupt condition is configured via the NEOLED_CTRL_IRQ_CONF bit in the unit’s control register.

If NEOLED_CTRL_IRQ_CONF is set, the module’s interrupt is generated whenever the TX FIFO is less than half-full. In this case software can write up to IO_NEOLED_TX_FIFO/2 new data words to DATA without checking the FIFO status flags. If NEOLED_CTRL_IRQ_CONF is cleared, an interrupt is generated when the TX FIFO is empty.

Once the NEOLED interrupt has fired it remains pending until the actual cause of the interrupt is resolved.

Register Map

Table 32. NEOLED register map (struct NEORV32_NEOLED)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffffd00

CTRL

0 NEOLED_CTRL_EN

r/w

NEOLED enable

1 NEOLED_CTRL_MODE

r/w

data transfer size; 0=24-bit; 1=32-bit

2 NEOLED_CTRL_STROBE

r/w

0=send normal color data; 1=send RESET command on data write access

5:3 NEOLED_CTRL_PRSC2 : NEOLED_CTRL_PRSC0

r/w

3-bit clock prescaler, bit 0

9:6 NEOLED_CTRL_BUFS3 : NEOLED_CTRL_BUFS0

r/-

4-bit log2(IO_NEOLED_TX_FIFO)

14:10 NEOLED_CTRL_T_TOT_4 : NEOLED_CTRL_T_TOT_0

r/w

5-bit pulse clock ticks per total single-bit period (Ttotal)

19:15 NEOLED_CTRL_T_ZERO_H_4 : NEOLED_CTRL_T_ZERO_H_0

r/w

5-bit pulse clock ticks per high-time for sending a zero-bit (T0H)

24:20 NEOLED_CTRL_T_ONE_H_4 : NEOLED_CTRL_T_ONE_H_0

r/w

5-bit pulse clock ticks per high-time for sending a one-bit (T1H)

27 NEOLED_CTRL_IRQ_CONF

r/w

TX FIFO interrupt configuration: 0=IRQ if FIFO is empty, 1=IRQ if FIFO is less than half-full

28 NEOLED_CTRL_TX_EMPTY

r/-

TX FIFO is empty

29 NEOLED_CTRL_TX_HALF

r/-

TX FIFO is at least half full

30 NEOLED_CTRL_TX_FULL

r/-

TX FIFO is full

31 NEOLED_CTRL_TX_BUSY

r/-

TX serial engine is busy when set

0xfffffd04

DATA

31:0 / 23:0

-/w

TX data (32- or 24-bit, depending on NEOLED_CTRL_MODE bit)

2.8.23. External Interrupt Controller (XIRQ)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_xirq.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_xirq.c

neorv32_xirq.h

Top entity ports:

xirq_i

External interrupts input (32-bit)

Configuration generics:

XIRQ_NUM_CH

Number of external IRQ channels to implement (0..32)

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 8

XIRQ (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The external interrupt controller provides a simple mechanism to implement up to 32 platform-level / processor-external interrupt request signals. The external IRQ requests are prioritized, queued and signaled to the CPU via a single CPU fast interrupt request channel.

Theory of Operation

The XIRQ provides up to 32 external interrupt channels configured via the XIRQ_NUM_CH generic. Each bit in the xirq_i input signal vector represents one interrupt channel. If less than 32 channels are configured, only the LSB-aligned channels are used while the remaining ones are left unconnected internally.

The external interrupt controller features four interface registers:

  1. external interrupt channel enable (EIE)

  2. external interrupt source (ESC)

  3. trigger type configuration (TTYP)

  4. trigger polarity configuration (TPOL)

The actual interrupt trigger type can be configured individually for each channel using the TTYP and TPOL registers. TTYP defines the actual trigger type (level-triggered or edge-triggered), while TPOL defines the trigger’s polarity (low-level/falling-edge or high-level/rising-edge). The position of each bit in these registers corresponds the according XIRQ channel.

Table 33. XIRQ Trigger Configuration
TTYP(i) TPOL(i) Resulting trigger of xirq_i(i)

0

0

low-level

0

1

high-level

1

0

falling-edge

1

1

rising-edge

Each interrupt channel can be enabled or disabled individually using the EIE register. If the trigger of a disabled channel fires the interrupt request is entirely ignored.

If the configured trigger of an enabled channels fires, the according interrupt request is buffered internally and an interrupt request is sent to the CPU. If more than one trigger fires at one a prioritization is used: the channels are prioritized in a static order, i.e. channel 0 (xirq_i(0)) has the highest priority and channel 31 (xirq_i(31)) has the lowest priority.

The CPU can determine the most prioritized external interrupt request by reading the interrupt source register ESC. This register provides a 5-bit wide ID (0..31) identifying the currently firing external interrupt source channel as well as a single bit (the MSB) that Writing any value to this register will acknowledge and clear the current CPU interrupt (so the XIRQ controller can issue a new CPU interrupt).

Register Map

Table 34. XIRQ register map (struct NEORV32_XIRQ)
Address Name [C] Bit(s) R/W Description

0xfffff300

EIE

31:0

r/w

External interrupt enable register (one bit per channel, LSB-aligned)

0xfffff304

ESC

31

r/c

XIRQ interrupt when set; write any value to this register to acknowledge the current XIRQ interrupt

30:5

r/-

reserved, read as zero

4:0

r/c

Interrupt source ID (0..31) of firing IRQ (prioritized!)

0xfffff308

TTYP

31:0

r/w

Trigger type select (0 = level trigger, 1 = edge trigger); each bit corresponds to the according channel number

0xfffff30c

TPOL

31:0

r/w

Trigger polarity select (0 = low-level/falling-edge, 1 = high-level/rising-edge); each bit corresponds to the according channel number

2.8.24. General Purpose Timer (GPTMR)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_gptmr.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_gptmr.c

neorv32_gptmr.h

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

IO_GPTMR_EN

implement general purpose timer when true

CPU interrupts:

fast IRQ channel 12

timer interrupt (see Processor Interrupts)

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The general purpose timer module implements a simple yet universal 32-bit timer. It is implemented if the processor’s IO_GPTMR_EN top generic is set true. The timer provides a pre-scaled counter register that can trigger an interrupt when reaching a programmable threshold value.

The GPTMR provides three interface registers : a control register (CTRL), a 32-bit counter register (COUNT) and a 32-bit threshold register (THRES). The timer is globally enabled by setting the GPTMR_CTRL_EN bit in the module’s control register. When the timer is enable the COUNT register will start incrementing from zero at a programmable rate that scales the main processor clock. this pre-scaler is configured via the three GPTMR_CTRL_PRSCx control register bits:

Table 35. GPTMR prescaler configuration
GPTMR_CTRL_PRSCx 0b000 0b001 0b010 0b011 0b100 0b101 0b110 0b111

Resulting clock_prescaler

2

4

8

64

128

1024

2048

4096

Whenever the counter register COUNT equals the programmable threshold value THRES the module’s interrupt signal becomes pending (indicated by GPTMR_CTRL_IRQ_PND being set). Note that a pending interrupt has to be cleared manually by writing a 1 to GPTMR_CTRL_IRQ_CLR.

The control register’s GPTMR_CTRL_MODE bit defines what will happen when COUNT == THRES.

  • GPTMR_CTRL_MODE = 0: single-shot mode - the COUNT register will stop incrementing

  • GPTMR_CTRL_MODE = 1: continuous mode - the COUNT register is automatically reset and restarts incrementing from zero

Resetting the Counter
Disabling the GPTMR will also clear the COUNT register.

Interrupt

The GPTRM provides a single interrupt line is triggered whenever COUNT equals THRES. Once triggered, the interrupt will stay pending until explicitly cleared by writing a 1 to GPTMR_CTRL_IRQ_CLR.

Register Map

Table 36. GPTMR register map (struct NEORV32_GPTMR)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xfffff100

CTRL

0 GPTMR_CTRL_EN

r/w

Timer enable flag

3:1 GPTMR_CTRL_PRSC2 : GPTMR_CTRL_PRSC0

r/w

3-bit clock prescaler select

4 GPTMR_CTRL_MODE

r/w

Operation mode (0=single-shot, 1=continuous)

29:5 -

r/-

reserved, read as zero

30 GPTMR_CTRL_IRQ_CLR

-/w

Write 1 to clear timer-match interrupt; auto-clears

31 GPTMR_CTRL_IRQ_PND

r/-

Timer-match interrupt pending

0xfffff104

THRES

31:0

r/w

Threshold value register

0xfffff108

COUNT

31:0

r/-

Counter register

2.8.25. Execute In Place Module (XIP)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_xip.vhd

XIP module

neorv32_cache.vhd

Generic cache module

Software driver files:

neorv32_xip.c

neorv32_xip.h

Top entity ports:

xip_csn_o

1-bit chip select, low-active

xip_clk_o

1-bit serial clock output

xip_dat_i

1-bit serial data input

xip_dat_o

1-bit serial data output

Configuration generics:

XIP_EN

implement XIP module when true

XIP_CACHE_EN

implement XIP cache when true

XIP_CACHE_NUM_BLOCKS

number of blocks in XIP cache; has to be a power of two

XIP_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE

number of bytes per XIP cache block; has to be a power of two, min 4

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

control registers: privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

XIP data access: read-only

Overview

The execute in-place (XIP) module allows to execute code (and read constant data) directly from an external SPI flash memory. The standard serial peripheral interface (SPI) is used as transfer protocol. All bus requests issued by the CPU are converted transparently into SPI flash access commands. Hence, the external XIP flash behaves like a simple on-chip ROM.

From the CPU side, the modules provides two independent interfaces: one for transparently accessing the XIP flash and another one for accessing the module’s control and status registers. The first interface provides the transparent gateway to the SPI flash, so the CPU can directly fetch and execute instructions and/or read constant data. Note that this interface is read-only. Any write access will raise a bus error exception. The second interface is mapped to the processor’s IO space and allows accesses to the XIP module’s configuration registers as well as conducting individual SPI transfers.

The XIP module provides an optional configurable cache to accelerate SPI flash accesses.

XIP Address Mapping
When XIP mode is enabled the flash is mapped to fixed address space region starting at address 0xE0000000 (see section Address Space) supporting a maximum flash size of 256MB.
XIP Example Program
An example program is provided in sw/example/demo_xip that illustrate how to program and configure an external SPI flash to run a program from it.

SPI Configuration

The XIP module accesses external flash using the standard SPI protocol. The module always sends data MSB-first and provides all of the standard four clock modes (0..3), which are configured via the XIP_CTRL_CPOL (clock polarity) and XIP_CTRL_CPHA (clock phase) control register bits, respectively. The flash’s "read command", which initiates a read access, is defined by the XIP_CTRL_RD_CMD control register bits. For most SPI flash memories this is 0x03 for normal SPI mode.

The SPI clock (xip_clk_o) frequency is programmed by the 3-bit XIP_CTRL_PRSCx clock prescaler for a coarse clock selection and a 4-bit clock divider XPI_CTRL_CDIVx for a fine clock selection. The following clock prescalers (XIP_CTRL_PRSCx) are available:

Table 37. XIP clock prescaler configuration
XIP_CTRL_PRSCx 0b000 0b001 0b010 0b011 0b100 0b101 0b110 0b111

Resulting clock_prescaler

2

4

8

64

128

1024

2048

4096

Based on the programmed clock configuration, the actual SPI clock frequency fSPI is derived from the processor’s main clock fmain according to the following equation:

fSPI = fmain[Hz] / (2 * clock_prescaler * (1 + XPI_CTRL_CDIVx))

Hence, the maximum SPI clock is fmain / 4 and the lowest SPI clock is fmain / 131072. The SPI clock is always symmetric having a duty cycle of 50%.

High-Speed Mode

The XIP module provides a high-speed mode to further boost the maximum SPI clock frequency. When enabled via the control register’s XIP_CTRL_HIGHSPEED bit the clock prescaler configuration (XIP_CTRL_PRSCx bits) is overridden setting it to a minimal factor of 1. However, the clock speed can still be fine-tuned using the XPI_CTRL_CDIVx bits.

fSPI = fmain[Hz] / (2 * 1 * (1 + XPI_CTRL_CDIVx))

Hence, the maximum SPI clock when in high-speed mode is fmain / 2.

Direct SPI Access

The XIP module allows to initiate direct SPI transactions. This feature can be used to configure the attached SPI flash or to perform direct read and write accesses to the flash memory. Two data registers DATA_LO and DATA_HI are provided to send up to 64-bit of SPI data. The DATA_HI register is write-only, so a total of just 32-bits of receive data is provided. Note that the module handles the chip-select line (xip_csn_o) by itself so it is not possible to construct larger consecutive transfers.

The actual data transmission size in bytes is defined by the control register’s XIP_CTRL_SPI_NBYTES bits. Any configuration from 1 byte to 8 bytes is valid. Other value will result in unpredictable behavior.

Since data is always transferred MSB-first, the data in DATA_HI:DATA_LO also has to be MSB-aligned. Receive data is available in DATA_LO only since DATA_HI is write-only. Writing to DATA_HI triggers the actual SPI transmission. The XIP_CTRL_PHY_BUSY control register flag indicates a transmission being in progress.

The chip-select line of the XIP module (xip_csn_o) will only become asserted (enabled, pulled low) if the XIP_CTRL_SPI_CSEN control register bit is set. If this bit is cleared, xip_csn_o is always disabled (pulled high).

Direct SPI mode is only possible when the module is enabled (setting XIP_CTRL_EN) but before the actual XIP mode is enabled via XIP_CTRL_XIP_EN.
When the XIP mode is not enabled, the XIP module can also be used as additional general purpose SPI controller with a transfer size of up to 64 bits per transmission.

Using the XIP Mode

The XIP module is globally enabled by setting the XIP_CTRL_EN bit in the device’s CTRL control register. Clearing this bit will reset the whole module and will also terminate any pending SPI transfer.

Since there is a wide variety of SPI flash components with different sizes, the XIP module allows to specify the address width of the flash: the number of address bytes used for addressing flash memory content has to be configured using the control register’s XIP_CTRL_XIP_ABYTES bits. These two bits contain the number of SPI address bytes (minus one). For example for a SPI flash with 24-bit addresses these bits have to be set to 0b10.

The transparent XIP accesses are transformed into SPI transmissions with the following format (starting with the MSB):

  • 8-bit command: configured by the XIP_CTRL_RD_CMD control register bits ("SPI read command")

  • 8 to 32 bits address: defined by the XIP_CTRL_XIP_ABYTES control register bits ("number of address bytes")

  • 32-bit data: sending zeros and receiving the according flash word (32-bit)

Hence, the maximum XIP transmission size is 72-bit, which has to be configured via the XIP_CTRL_SPI_NBYTES control register bits. Note that the 72-bit transmission size is only available in XIP mode. The transmission size of the direct SPI accesses is limited to 64-bit.

When using four SPI flash address bytes, the most significant 4 bits of the address are always hardwired to zero allowing a maximum accessible flash size of 256MB.
The XIP module always fetches a full naturally aligned 32-bit word from the SPI flash. Any sub-word data masking or alignment will be performed by the CPU core logic.
The XIP mode requires the 4-byte data words in the flash to be ordered in little-endian byte order.

After the SPI properties (including the amount of address bytes and the total amount of SPI transfer bytes) and XIP address mapping are configured, the actual XIP mode can be enabled by setting the control register’s XIP_CTRL_XIP_EN bit. This will enable the "transparent SPI access port" of the module and thus, the transparent conversion of access requests into proper SPI flash transmissions. Hence, any access to the processor’s memory-mapped XIP region (0xE0000000 to 0xEFFFFFFF) will be converted into SPI flash accesses. Make sure XIP_CTRL_SPI_CSEN is also set so the module can actually select/enable the attached SPI flash. No more direct SPI accesses via DATA_HI:DATA_LO are possible when the XIP mode is enabled. However, the XIP mode can be disabled at any time.

If the XIP module is disabled (XIP_CTRL_EN = 0) any accesses to the memory-mapped XIP flash address region will raise a bus access exception. If the XIP module is enabled (XIP_CTRL_EN = 1) but XIP mode is not enabled yet (XIP_CTRL_XIP_EN = '0') any access to the programmed XIP memory segment will also raise a bus access exception.
It is highly recommended to enable the Processor-Internal Instruction Cache (iCACHE) to cover some of the SPI access latency.

XIP Cache

Since every single instruction fetch request from the CPU is translated into serial SPI transmissions the access latency is very high resulting in a low throughput. In order to improve performance, the XIP module provides an optional cache that allows to buffer recently-accessed data. The cache is implemented as a simple direct-mapped read-only cache with a configurable cache layout:

  • XIP_CACHE_EN: when set to true the CIP cache is implemented

  • XIP_CACHE_NUM_BLOCKS defines the number of cache blocks (or lines)

  • XIP_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE defines the size in bytes of each cache block

When the cache is implemented, the XIP module operates in burst mode utilizing the flash’s incremental read capabilities. Thus, several bytes (= XIP_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE) are read consecutively from the flash using a single read command.

The XIP cache is cleared when the XIP module is disabled (XIP_CTRL_EN = 0), when XIP mode is disabled (XIP_CTRL_XIP_EN = 0) or when the CPU issues a fence(.i) instruction.

Register Map

Table 38. XIP Register Map (struct NEORV32_XIP)
Address Name [C] Bit(s), Name [C] R/W Function

0xffffff40

CTRL

0 XIP_CTRL_EN

r/w

XIP module enable

3:1 XIP_CTRL_PRSC2 : XIP_CTRL_PRSC0

r/w

3-bit SPI clock prescaler select

4 XIP_CTRL_CPOL

r/w

SPI clock polarity

5 XIP_CTRL_CPHA

r/w

SPI clock phase

9:6 XIP_CTRL_SPI_NBYTES_MSB : XIP_CTRL_SPI_NBYTES_LSB

r/w

Number of bytes in SPI transaction (1..9)

10 XIP_CTRL_XIP_EN

r/w

XIP mode enable

12:11 XIP_CTRL_XIP_ABYTES_MSB : XIP_CTRL_XIP_ABYTES_LSB

r/w

Number of address bytes for XIP flash (minus 1)

20:13 XIP_CTRL_RD_CMD_MSB : XIP_CTRL_RD_CMD_LSB

r/w

Flash read command

21 XIP_CTRL_SPI_CSEN

r/w

Allow SPI chip-select to be actually asserted when set

22 XIP_CTRL_HIGHSPEED

r/w

enable SPI high-speed mode (ignoring XIP_CTRL_PRSCx)

26:23 XIP_CTRL_CDIV3 : XIP_CTRL_CDIV0

r/-

4-bit clock divider for fine-tuning

29:27 -

r/-

reserved, read as zero

30 XIP_CTRL_PHY_BUSY

r/-

SPI PHY busy when set

31 XIP_CTRL_XIP_BUSY

r/-

XIP access in progress when set

0xffffff44

reserved

31:0

r/-

reserved, read as zero

0xffffff48

DATA_LO

31:0

r/w

Direct SPI access - data register low

0xffffff4C

DATA_HI

31:0

-/w

Direct SPI access - data register high; write access triggers SPI transfer

2.8.26. System Configuration Information Memory (SYSINFO)

Hardware source files:

neorv32_sysinfo.vhd

Software driver files:

neorv32_sysinfo.h

Top entity ports:

none

Configuration generics:

*

most of the top’s configuration generics

CPU interrupts:

none

Access restrictions:

privileged access only, non-32-bit write accesses are ignored

Overview

The SYSINFO module allows the application software to determine the setting of most of the Processor Top Entity - Generics that are related to CPU and processor/SoC configuration. This device is always implemented - regardless of the actual hardware configuration since the NEORV32 software framework requires information from this device for correct operation. However, advanced users that do not want to use the default NEORV32 software framework can choose to disable the entire SYSINFO module. This might also be suitable for setups that use the processor just as wrapper for a CPU-only configuration.

Disabling the SYSINFO Module
Setting the IO_DISABLE_SYSINFO top entity generic to true will remove the SYSINFO module from the design. This option is suitable for advanced uses that wish to use a CPU-only setup that still contains the bus infrastructure. As a result, large parts of the NEORV32 software framework no longer work (e.g. most IO drivers, the RTE and the bootloader). Hence, this option is not recommended.

Register Map

All registers of this module are read-only except for the CLK register. Upon reset, the CLK registers is initialized from the CLOCK_FREQUENCY top entity generic. Application software can override this default value in order, for example, to take into account a dynamic frequency scaling of the processor.

Table 39. SYSINFO register map (struct NEORV32_SYSINFO)
Address Name [C] R/W Description

0xfffffe00

CLK

r/w

clock frequency in Hz (initialized from top’s CLOCK_FREQUENCY generic)

0xfffffe04

MEM[4]

r/-

internal memory configuration (see SYSINFO - Memory Configuration)

0xfffffe08

SOC

r/-

specific SoC configuration (see SYSINFO - SoC Configuration)

0xfffffe0c

CACHE

r/-

cache configuration information (see SYSINFO - Cache Configuration)

SYSINFO - Memory Configuration
Bit fields in this register are set to all-zero if the according memory system is not implemented.
Table 40. SYSINFO MEM Bytes
Byte Name [C] Description

0

SYSINFO_MEM_IMEM

log2(internal IMEM size in bytes), via top’s MEM_INT_IMEM_SIZE generic

1

SYSINFO_MEM_DMEM

log2(internal DMEM size in bytes), via top’s MEM_INT_DMEM_SIZE generic

2

-

reserved, read as zero

3

SYSINFO_MEM_BOOT

boot mode configuration, via top’s BOOT_MODE_SELECT generic (see Boot Configuration))

SYSINFO - SoC Configuration
Table 41. SYSINFO SOC Bits
Bit Name [C] Description

0

SYSINFO_SOC_BOOTLOADER

set if processor-internal bootloader is implemented (via top’s BOOT_MODE_SELECT generic; see Boot Configuration)

1

SYSINFO_SOC_XBUS

set if external Wishbone bus interface is implemented (via top’s XBUS_EN generic)

2

SYSINFO_SOC_MEM_INT_IMEM

set if processor-internal DMEM is implemented (via top’s MEM_INT_IMEM_EN generic)

3

SYSINFO_SOC_MEM_INT_DMEM

set if processor-internal IMEM is implemented (via top’s MEM_INT_DMEM_EN generic)

4

SYSINFO_SOC_OCD

set if on-chip debugger is implemented (via top’s OCD_EN generic)

5

SYSINFO_SOC_ICACHE

set if processor-internal instruction cache is implemented (via top’s ICACHE_EN generic)

6

SYSINFO_SOC_DCACHE

set if processor-internal data cache is implemented (via top’s DCACHE_EN generic)

7

SYSINFO_SOC_CLOCK_GATING

set if CPU clock gating is implemented (via top’s CLOCK_GATING_EN generic)

8

SYSINFO_SOC_XBUS_CACHE

set if external bus interface cache is implemented (via top’s XBUS_CACHE_EN generic)

9

SYSINFO_SOC_XIP

set if XIP module is implemented (via top’s XIP_EN generic)

10

SYSINFO_SOC_XIP_CACHE

set if XIP cache is implemented (via top’s XIP_CACHE_EN generic)

11

SYSINFO_SOC_OCD_AUTH

set if on-chip debugger authentication is implemented (via top’s OCD_AUTHENTICATION generic)

12

SYSINFO_SOC_IMEM_ROM

set if processor-internal IMEM is implemented as pre-initialized ROM (via top’s BOOT_MODE_SELECT generic; see Boot Configuration)

13

-

reserved, read as zero

14

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_DMA

set if direct memory access controller is implemented (via top’s IO_DMA_EN generic)

15

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_GPIO

set if GPIO is implemented (via top’s IO_GPIO_EN generic)

16

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_MTIME

set if MTIME is implemented (via top’s IO_MTIME_EN generic)

17

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_UART0

set if primary UART0 is implemented (via top’s IO_UART0_EN generic)

18

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_SPI

set if SPI is implemented (via top’s IO_SPI_EN generic)

19

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_TWI

set if TWI is implemented (via top’s IO_TWI_EN generic)

20

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_PWM

set if PWM is implemented (via top’s IO_PWM_NUM_CH generic)

21

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_WDT

set if WDT is implemented (via top’s IO_WDT_EN generic)

22

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_CFS

set if custom functions subsystem is implemented (via top’s IO_CFS_EN generic)

23

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_TRNG

set if TRNG is implemented (via top’s IO_TRNG_EN generic)

24

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_SDI

set if SDI is implemented (via top’s IO_SDI_EN generic)

25

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_UART1

set if secondary UART1 is implemented (via top’s IO_UART1_EN generic)

26

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_NEOLED

set if NEOLED is implemented (via top’s IO_NEOLED_EN generic)

27

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_XIRQ

set if XIRQ is implemented (via top’s XIRQ_NUM_CH generic)

28

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_GPTMR

set if GPTMR is implemented (via top’s IO_GPTMR_EN generic)

29

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_SLINK

set if stream link interface is implemented (via top’s IO_SLINK_EN generic)

30

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_ONEWIRE

set if ONEWIRE interface is implemented (via top’s IO_ONEWIRE_EN generic)

31

SYSINFO_SOC_IO_CRC

set if cyclic redundancy check unit is implemented (via top’s IO_CRC_EN generic)

SYSINFO - Cache Configuration
Bit fields in this register are set to all-zero if the according cache is not implemented.
Table 42. SYSINFO CACHE Bits
Bit Name [C] Description

3:0

SYSINFO_CACHE_INST_BLOCK_SIZE_3 : SYSINFO_CACHE_INST_BLOCK_SIZE_0

log2(i-cache block size in bytes), via top’s ICACHE_BLOCK_SIZE generic

7:4

SYSINFO_CACHE_INST_NUM_BLOCKS_3 : SYSINFO_CACHE_INST_NUM_BLOCKS_0

log2(i-cache number of cache blocks), via top’s ICACHE_NUM_BLOCKS generic

11:8

SYSINFO_CACHE_DATA_BLOCK_SIZE_3 : SYSINFO_CACHE_DATA_BLOCK_SIZE_0

log2(d-cache block size in bytes), via top’s DCACHE_BLOCK_SIZE generic

15:12

SYSINFO_CACHE_DATA_NUM_BLOCKS_3 : SYSINFO_CACHE_DATA_NUM_BLOCKS_0

log2(d-cache number of cache blocks), via top’s DCACHE_NUM_BLOCKS generic

19:16

SYSINFO_CACHE_XIP_BLOCK_SIZE_3 : SYSINFO_CACHE_XIP_BLOCK_SIZE_0

log2(xip-cache block size in bytes), via top’s XIP_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE generic

23:20

SYSINFO_CACHE_XIP_NUM_BLOCKS_3 : SYSINFO_CACHE_XIP_NUM_BLOCKS_0

log2(xip-cache number of cache blocks), via top’s XIP_CACHE_NUM_BLOCKS generic

27:24

SYSINFO_CACHE_XBUS_BLOCK_SIZE_3 : SYSINFO_CACHE_XBUS_BLOCK_SIZE_0

log2(xbus-cache block size in bytes), via top’s XBUS_CACHE_BLOCK_SIZE generic

31:28

SYSINFO_CACHE_XBUS_NUM_BLOCKS_3 : SYSINFO_CACHE_XBUS_NUM_BLOCKS_0

log2(xbus-cache number of cache blocks), via top’s XBUS_CACHE_NUM_BLOCKS generic

3. NEORV32 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The NEORV32 CPU is an area-optimized RISC-V core implementing the rv32i_zicsr_zifencei base (privileged) ISA and supporting several additional/optional ISA extensions. The CPU’s micro architecture is based on a von-Neumann machine build upon a mixture of multi-cycle and pipelined execution schemes.

This chapter assumes that the reader is familiar with the official RISC-V User and Privileged Architecture specifications.

Section Structure

3.1. RISC-V Compatibility

The NEORV32 CPU passes the tests of the official RISCOF RISC-V Architecture Test Framework. This framework is used to check RISC-V implementations for compatibility to the official RISC-V user/privileged ISA specifications. The NEORV32 port of this test framework is available in a separate repository at GitHub: https://github.com/stnolting/neorv32-riscof

Unsupported ISA Extensions
Executing instructions or accessing CSRs from yet unsupported ISA extensions will raise an illegal instruction exception (see section Full Virtualization).

Incompatibility Issues and Limitations

time[h] CSRs (Wall Clock Time)
The NEORV32 does not implement the time[h] registers. Any access to these registers will trap. It is recommended that the trap handler software provides a means of accessing the platform-defined Machine System Timer (MTIME).
No Hardware Support of Misaligned Memory Accesses
The CPU does not support resolving unaligned memory access by the hardware (this is not a RISC-V-incompatibility issue but an important thing to know!). Any kind of unaligned memory access will raise an exception to allow a software-based emulation provided by the application. However, unaligned memory access can be emulated using the NEORV32 runtime environment. See section Application Context Handling for more information.

3.2. CPU Top Entity - Signals

The following table shows all interface signals of the CPU top entity rtl/core/neorv32_cpu.vhd. The type of all signals is std_ulogic or std_ulogic_vector, respectively. The "Dir." column shows the signal direction as seen from the CPU.

Table 43. NEORV32 CPU Signal List
Signal Width/Type Dir Description

Global Signals

clk_i

1

in

Global clock line, all registers triggering on rising edge, this clock can be switched off during Sleep Mode

clk_aux_i

1

in

Always-on clock, used to keep the the sleep control active when clk_i is switched off

rstn_i

1

in

Global reset, low-active

sleep_o

1

out

CPU is in Sleep Mode when set

debug_o

1

out

CPU is in debug mode when set

Interrupts (Traps, Exceptions and Interrupts)

msi_i

1

in

RISC-V machine software interrupt

mei_i

1

in

RISC-V machine external interrupt

mti_i

1

in

RISC-V machine timer interrupt

firq_i

16

in

Custom fast interrupt request signals

dbi_i

1

in

Request CPU to halt and enter debug mode (RISC-V On-Chip Debugger (OCD))

Instruction Bus Interface

ibus_req_o

bus_req_t

out

Instruction fetch bus request

ibus_rsp_i

bus_rsp_t

in

Instruction fetch bus response

Data Bus Interface

dbus_req_o

bus_req_t

out

Data access (load/store) bus request

dbus_rsp_i

bus_rsp_t

in

Data access (load/store) bus response

Bus Interface Protocol
See section Bus Interface for the instruction fetch and data access interface protocol and the according interface types (bus_req_t and bus_rsp_t).

3.3. CPU Top Entity - Generics

Most of the CPU configuration generics are a subset of the actual Processor configuration generics (see section Processor Top Entity - Generics). and are not listed here. However, the CPU provides some specific generics that are used to configure the CPU for the NEORV32 processor setup. These generics are assigned by the processor setup only and are not available for user defined configuration. The specific generics are listed below.

Table Abbreviations
The generic type "suv(x:y)" represents a std_ulogic_vector(x downto y).
Table 44. NEORV32 CPU-Exclusive Generic List
Name Type Description

VENDOR_ID

suv(31:0)

Value for the mvendorid CSR.

BOOT_ADDR

suv(31:0)

CPU reset address. See section Address Space.

DEBUG_PARK_ADDR

suv(31:0)

"Park loop" entry address for the On-Chip Debugger (OCD), has to be 4-byte aligned.

DEBUG_EXC_ADDR

suv(31:0)

"Exception" entry address for the On-Chip Debugger (OCD), has to be 4-byte aligned.

RISCV_ISA_Sdext

boolean

Implement RISC-V-compatible "debug" CPU operation mode required for the On-Chip Debugger (OCD).

RISCV_ISA_Sdtrig

boolean

Implement RISC-V-compatible trigger module. See section On-Chip Debugger (OCD).

RISCV_ISA_Smpmp

boolean

Implement RISC-V-compatible physical memory protection (PMP). See section Smpmp ISA Extension.

3.4. Architecture

neorv32 cpu

The CPU implements a pipelined multi-cycle architecture: each instruction is executed as a series of consecutive micro-operations. In order to increase performance, the CPU’s front-end (instruction fetch) and back-end (instruction execution) are de-couples via a FIFO (the instruction prefetch buffer. Thus, the front-end can already fetch new instructions while the back-end is still processing the previously-fetched instructions.

Basically, the CPU’s micro architecture is somewhere between a classical pipelined architecture, where each stage requires exactly one processing cycle (if not stalled) and a classical multi-cycle architecture, which executes every single instruction (including fetch) in a series of consecutive micro-operations. The combination of these two design paradigms allows an increased instruction execution in contrast to a pure multi-cycle approach (due to overlapping operation of fetch and execute) at a reduced hardware footprint (due to the multi-cycle concept).

As a Von-Neumann machine, the CPU provides independent interfaces for instruction fetch and data access. However, these two bus interfaces are merged into a single processor-internal bus via a prioritizing bus switch (data accesses have higher priority). Hence, all memory addresses including peripheral devices are mapped to a single unified 32-bit Address Space.

Linear/In-Order Execution Only
The CPU does not perform any speculative/out-of-order operations at all. Hence, it is not vulnerable to security issues caused by speculative execution (like Spectre or Meltdown).

3.4.1. CPU Register File

The data register file contains the general purpose architecture registers x0 to x31. For the rv32e ISA only the lower 16 registers are implemented. Register zero (x0/zero) always read as zero and any write access to it has no effect. Up to four individual synchronous read ports allow to fetch up to 4 register operands at once. The write and read accesses are mutually exclusive as they happen in separate cycles. Hence, there is no need to consider things like "read-during-write" behavior.

The register file provides two different implementation options configured via the top’s REGFILE_HW_RST generic.

  • REGFILE_HW_RST = false (default): In this configuration the register file is implemented as plain memory array without a dictated hardware reset. This architecture allows to infer FPGA block RAM for the entire register file resulting in minimal general logic utilization.

  • REGFILE_HW_RST = true: This configuration is based on individual FFs that do provide a dedicated hardware reset. Hence, the register cannot be mapped to FPGA block RAM. This optional can be selected if the application requires a reset of the register file (e.g. for security reasons) or if the design shall be synthesized for an ASIC implementation. Using individual FFs for th register file might also improve timing as no long routing lines are required to connect to block RAM primitives.

The state of this configuration generic can be checked by software via the mxisa CSR.

FPGA Implementation
Enabling the REGFILE_HW_RST option for FPGA implementation is not recommended as this will massively increase the amount of required logic resources.
Implementation of the zero Register within FPGA Block RAM
Register zero is also mapped to a physical memory location within the register file’s block RAM. By this, there is no need to add a further multiplexer to "insert" zero if reading from register zero reducing logic requirements and shortening the critical path. However, this also requires that the physical storage bits of register zero are explicitly initialized (set to zero) by the hardware. This is done transparently by the CPU control requiring no additional processing overhead.
Block RAM Ports
The default register file configuration uses two access ports: a read-only port for reading register rs2 (second source operand) and a read/write port for reading register rs1 (first source operand) and for writing processing results to register rd (destination register). Hence, a simple dual-port RAM can be used to implement the entire register file. From a functional point of view, read and write accesses to the register file do never occur in the same clock cycle, so no bypass logic is required at all.

3.4.2. CPU Arithmetic Logic Unit

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) is used for actual data processing as well as generating memory and branch addresses. All "simple" I ISA Extension computational instructions (like add and or) are implemented as plain combinatorial logic requiring only a single cycle to complete. More sophisticated instructions like shift operations or multiplications are processed by so-called "ALU co-processors".

The co-processors are implemented as iterative units that require several cycles to complete processing. Besides the base ISA’s shift instructions, the co-processors are used to implement all further processing-based ISA extensions (e.g. M ISA Extension and B ISA Extension).

Multi-Cycle Execution Monitor
The CPU control will raise an illegal instruction exception if a multi-cycle functional unit (like the Custom Functions Unit (CFU)) does not complete processing in a bound amount of time (configured via the package’s monitor_mc_tmo_c constant; default = 512 clock cycles).
Tuning Options
The ALU architecture can be tuned for an application-specific area-vs-performance trade-off. The FAST_MUL_EN and FAST_SHIFT_EN generics can be used to implement performance-optimized barrel shifters and DSP blocks, respectively. See sections I ISA Extension, B ISA Extension and M ISA Extension for specific examples.

3.4.3. CPU Bus Unit

The bus unit takes care of handling data memory accesses via load and store instructions. It handles data adjustment when accessing sub-word data quantities (16-bit or 8-bit) and performs sign-extension for singed load operations. The bus unit also includes the optional Smpmp ISA Extension that performs permission checks for all data and instruction accesses.

A list of the bus interface signals and a detailed description of the protocol can be found in section Bus Interface. All bus interface signals are driven/buffered by registers; so even a complex SoC interconnection bus network will not effect maximal operation frequency.

Unaligned Accesses
The CPU does not support a hardware-based handling of unaligned memory accesses! Any unaligned access will raise a bus load/store unaligned address exception. The exception handler can be used to emulate unaligned memory accesses in software. See the NEORV32 Runtime Environment’s Application Context Handling section for more information.

3.4.4. CPU Control Unit

The CPU control unit is responsible for generating all the control signals for the different CPU modules. The control unit is split into a "front-end" and a "back-end".

Front-End

The front-end is responsible for fetching instructions in chunks of 32-bits. This can be a single aligned 32-bit instruction, two aligned 16-bit instructions or a mixture of those. The instructions including control and exception information are stored to a FIFO queue - the instruction prefetch buffer (IPB). This FIFO has a depth of two entries by default but can be customized via the ipb_depth_c VHDL package constant.

The FIFO allows the front-end to do "speculative" instruction fetches, as it keeps fetching the next consecutive instruction all the time. This also allows to decouple front-end (instruction fetch) and back-end (instruction execution) so both modules can operate in parallel to increase performance. However, all potential side effects that are caused by this "speculative" instruction fetch are already handled by the CPU front-end ensuring a defined execution stage while preventing security side attacks.

Back-End

Instruction data from the instruction prefetch buffer is decompressed (if the C ISA extension is enabled) and sent to the CPU back-end for actual execution. Execution is conducted by a state-machine that controls all of the CPU modules. The back-end also includes the Control and Status Registers (CSRs) as well as the trap controller.

3.4.5. Sleep Mode

The NEORV32 CPU provides a single sleep mode that can be entered to power-down the core reducing dynamic power consumption. Sleep mode is entered by executing the wfi ("wait for interrupt") instruction.

Execution Details
The wfi instruction will raise an illegal instruction exception when executed in user-mode if TW in mstatus is set. When executed in debug-mode or during single-stepping wfi will behave as simple nop without entering sleep mode.

After executing the wfi instruction the CPU’s sleep_o signal (CPU Top Entity - Signals) will become set as soon as the CPU has fully halted ("CPU is sleeping"):

There is no enabled interrupt being pending.

CPU-external modules like memories, timers and peripheral interfaces are not affected by this. Furthermore, the CPU will continue to buffer/enqueue incoming interrupt. The CPU will leave sleep mode as soon as any enabled interrupt (via mie) source becomes pending or if a debug session is started.

Power-Down Mode

Optionally, the sleep mode can also be used to shut down the CPU’s main clock to further reduce power consumption by halting the core’s clock tree. This clock gating mode is enabled by the CLOCK_GATING_EN generic (Processor Top Entity - Generics). See section Processor Clocking for more information.

3.4.6. Full Virtualization

Just like the RISC-V ISA, the NEORV32 aims to provide maximum virtualization capabilities on CPU and SoC level to allow a high standard of execution safety. The CPU supports all traps specified by the official RISC-V specifications. Thus, the CPU provides defined hardware fall-backs via traps for any expected and unexpected situations (e.g. executing a malformed or not supported instruction or accessing a non-allocated memory address). For any kind of trap the core is always in a defined and fully synchronized state throughout the whole system (i.e. there are no out-of-order operations that might have to be reverted). This allows a defined and predictable execution behavior at any time improving overall execution safety.

3.5. Bus Interface

The NEORV32 CPU provides separated instruction fetch and data access interfaces making it a Harvard Architecture: the instruction fetch interface (i_bus_* signals) is used for fetching instructions and the data access interface (d_bus_* signals) is used to access data via load and store operations. Each of these interfaces can access an address space of up to 232 bytes (4GB).

The bus interface uses two custom interface types: bus_req_t is used to propagate the bus access requests. These signals are driven by the accessing device (i.e. the CPU core). bus_rsp_t is used to return the bus response and is driven by the accessed device or bus system (i.e. a processor-internal memory or IO device).

Table 45. Bus Interface - Request Bus (bus_req_t)
Signal Width Description

addr

32

Access address (byte addressing)

data

32

Write data

ben

4

Byte-enable for each byte in data

stb

1

Request trigger ("strobe", single-shot)

rw

1

Access direction (0 = read, 1 = write)

src

1

Access source (0 = instruction fetch, 1 = load/store)

priv

1

Set if privileged (M-mode) access

rvso

1

Set if current access is a reservation-set operation (lr or sc instruction, Zalrsc ISA Extension)

fence

1

Data/instruction fence operation; valid without stb being set

Table 46. Bus Interface - Response Bus (bus_rsp_t)
Signal Width Description

data

32

Read data (single-shot)

ack

1

Transfer acknowledge / success (single-shot)

err

1

Transfer error / fail (single-shot)

3.5.1. Bus Interface Protocol

Transactions are triggered entirely by the request bus. A new bus request is initiated by setting the strobe signal stb high for exactly one cycle. All remaining signals of the bus are set together with stb and will remain unchanged until the transaction is completed.

The transaction is completed when the accessed device returns a response via the response interface: ack is high for exactly one cycle if the transaction was completed successfully. err is high for exactly one cycle if the transaction failed to complete. These two signals are mutually exclusive. In case of a read access the read data is returned together with the ack signal. Otherwise, the return data signal is kept at all-zero allowing wired-or interconnection of all response buses.

The figure below shows three exemplary bus accesses:

  1. A read access to address A_addr returning rdata after several cycles (slow response; ACK arrives after several cycles).

  2. A write access to address B_addr writing wdata (fastest response; ACK arrives right in the next cycle).

  3. A failing read access to address C_addr (slow response; ERR arrives after several cycles).

700
Figure 8. Three Exemplary Bus Transactions
Adding Register Stages
Arbitrary pipeline stages can be added to the request and response buses at any point to relax timing (at the cost of additional latency). However, all bus signals (request and response) need to be registered.

3.5.2. Atomic Accesses

The load-reservate (lr.w) and store-conditional (sc.w) instructions from the Zalrsc ISA Extension execute as standard load/store bus transactions but with the rvso ("reservation set operation") signal being set. It is the task of the Reservation Set Controller to handle these LR/SC bus transactions accordingly. Note that these reservation set operations are intended for processor-internal usage only (i.e. the reservation state is not available for processor-external modules yet).

Reservation Set Controller
See section Address Space / Reservation Set Controller for more information.

The figure below shows three exemplary bus accesses (1 to 3 from left to right). The req signal record represents the CPU-side of the bus interface. For easier understanding the current state of the reservation set is added as rvs_valid signal.

  1. A load-reservate (LR) instruction using addr as address. This instruction returns the loaded data rdata via rsp.data and also registers a reservation for the address addr (rvs_valid becomes set).

  2. A store-conditional (SC) instruction attempts to write wdata1 to address addr. This SC operation succeeds, so wdata1 is actually written to address addr. The successful operation is indicated by a 0 being returned via rsp.data together with ack. As the LR/SC is completed the registered reservation is invalidated (rvs_valid becomes cleared).

  3. Another store-conditional (SC) instruction attempts to write wdata2 to address addr. As the reservation set is already invalidated (rvs_valid is 0) the store access fails, so wdata2 is not written to address addr at all. The failed operation is indicated by a 1 being returned via rsp.data together with ack.

700
Figure 9. Three Exemplary LR/SC Bus Transactions
Store-Conditional Status
The "normal" load data mechanism is used to return success/failure of the sc.w instruction to the CPU (via the LSB of rsp.data).
Cache Coherency
Atomic operations always bypass the CPU caches using direct/uncached accesses. Care must be taken to maintain data cache coherency (e.g. by using the fence instruction).

3.6. Instruction Sets and Extensions

The NEORV32 CPU provides several optional RISC-V-compliant and custom/user-defined ISA extensions. The extensions can be enabled/configured via the according Processor Top Entity - Generics. This chapter gives a brief overview of all available ISA extensions.

Table 47. NEORV32 Instruction Set Extensions
Name Description Enabled by Generic

B

Bit manipulation instructions

Implicitly enabled

C

Compressed (16-bit) instructions

RISCV_ISA_C

E

Embedded CPU extension (reduced register file size)

RISCV_ISA_E

I

Integer base ISA

Enabled if RISCV_ISA_E is not enabled

M

Integer multiplication and division instructions

RISCV_ISA_M

U

Less-privileged user mode extension

RISCV_ISA_U

X

Platform-specific / NEORV32-specific extension

Always enabled

Zalrsc

Atomic reservation-set instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zalrsc

Zba

Shifted-add bit manipulation instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zba

Zbb

Basic bit manipulation instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zbb

Zbkb

Scalar cryptographic bit manipulation instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zbkb

Zbkc

Scalar cryptographic carry-less multiplication instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zbkc

Zbkx

Scalar cryptographic crossbar permutation instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zbkx

Zbs

Single-bit bit manipulation instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zbs

Zfinx

Floating-point instructions using integer registers

RISCV_ISA_Zfinx

Zifencei

Instruction stream synchronization instruction

Always enabled

Zicntr

Base counters extension

RISCV_ISA_Zicntr

Zicond

Integer conditional operations

RISCV_ISA_Zicond

Zicsr

Control and status register access instructions

Always enabled

Zihpm

Hardware performance monitors extension

RISCV_ISA_Zihpm

Zkn

Scalar cryptographic NIST algorithm suite

Implicitly enabled

Zknd

Scalar cryptographic NIST AES decryption instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zknd

Zkne

Scalar cryptographic NIST AES encryption instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zkne

Zknh

Scalar cryptographic NIST hash function instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zknh

Zkt

Data independent execution time (of cryptographic operations)

Implicitly enabled

Zks

Scalar cryptographic ShangMi algorithm suite

Implicitly enabled

Zksed

Scalar cryptographic ShangMi block cypher instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zksed

Zksh

Scalar cryptographic ShangMi hash instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zksh

Zmmul

Integer multiplication-only instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zmmul

Zcfu

Custom / user-defined instructions

RISCV_ISA_Zxcfu

Smpmp

Physical memory protection (PMP) extension

RISCV_ISA_Smpmp

Sdext

External debug support extension

OCD_EN

Sdtrig

Trigger module extension

OCD_EN

RISC-V ISA Specification
For more information regarding the RISC-V ISA extensions please refer to the "RISC-V Instruction Set Manual - Volume I: Unprivileged ISA" and "The RISC-V Instruction Set Manual Volume II: Privileged Architecture". A copy of these documents can be found in the projects docs/references folder.
Discovering ISA Extensions
Software can discover available ISA extensions via the misa and mxisa CSRs or by executing an instruction and checking for an illegal instruction exception (i.e. Full Virtualization).
Instruction Cycles
This chapter shows the CPI values (cycles per instruction) for each individual instruction/type. Note that values reflect optimal conditions (i.e. no additional memory delay, no cache misses, no pipeline waits, etc.). To benchmark a certain processor configuration for its setup-specific CPI value please refer to the sw/example/performance_tests test programs.

3.6.1. B ISA Extension

The B ISA extension adds instructions for bit-manipulation operations. This ISA extension cannot be enabled by a specific generic. Instead, it is enabled if a specific set of bit-manipulation sub-extensions are enabled.

The B extension is shorthand for the following set of other extensions:

A processor configuration which implements B must implement all of the above extensions.

3.6.2. C ISA Extension

The "compressed" ISA extension provides 16-bit encodings of commonly used instructions to reduce code space size.

Table 48. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

ALU

c.addi4spn c.nop c.add[i] c.li c.addi16sp c.lui c.and[i] c.sub c.xor c.or c.mv

2

ALU

c.srli c.srai c.slli

3 + 1..32; FAST_SHIFT: 4

Branches

c.beqz c.bnez

taken: 6; not taken: 3

Jumps / calls

c.jal[r] c.j c.jr

6

Memory access

c.lw c.sw c.lwsp c.swsp

4

System

c.break

3

3.6.3. E ISA Extension

The "embedded" ISA extensions reduces the size of the general purpose register file from 32 entries to 16 entries to shrink hardware size. It provides the same instructions as the the base I ISA extensions.

Alternative MABI
Due to the reduced register file size an alternate toolchain ABI (ilp32e*) is required.

3.6.4. I ISA Extension

The I ISA extensions is the base RISC-V integer ISA that is always enabled.

Table 49. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

ALU

add[i] slt[i] slt[i]u xor[i] or[i] and[i] sub lui auipc

2

No-operation

“nop”

2

ALU shifts

sll[i] srl[i] sra[i]

3 + 1..32; FAST_SHIFT: 4

Branches

beq bne blt bge bltu bgeu

taken: 6; not taken: 3

Jump/call

jal[r]

6

Load/store

lb lh lw lbu lhu sb sh sw

5

System

ecall ebreak

3

Data fence

fence

5

System

wfi

3

System

mret

5

Illegal inst.

-

3

fence Instruction
The fence instruction word’s predecessor and successor bits (used for memory ordering) are not evaluated by the hardware at all. For the NEORV32 the fence instruction behaves exactly like the fence.i instruction (see Zifencei ISA Extension). However, software should still use distinct fence and fence.i to provide platform-compatibility and to indicate the actual intention of the according fence instruction(s).
wfi Instruction
The wfi instruction is used to enter Sleep Mode. Executing the wfi instruction in user-mode will raise an illegal instruction exception if the TW bit of mstatus is set.
Barrel Shifter
The shift operations are implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-process (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_shifter.vhd). These operations can be accelerated (at the cost of additional logic resources) by enabling the FAST_SHIFT_EN configuration option that will replace the (time-variant) bit-serial shifter by a (time-constant) barrel shifter.

3.6.5. M ISA Extension

Hardware-accelerated integer multiplication and division operations are available via the RISC-V M ISA extension. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-process (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_muldiv.vhd).

Table 50. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Multiplication

mul mulh mulhsu mulhu

36; FAST_MUL: 4

Division

div divu rem remu

36

DSP Blocks
Multiplication operations can be accelerated (at the cost of additional logic resources) by enabling the FAST_MUL_EN configuration option that will replace the (time-variant) bit-serial multiplier by (time-constant) FPGA DSP blocks.

3.6.6. U ISA Extension

In addition to the highest-privileged machine-mode, the user-mode ISA extensions adds a second less-privileged operation mode. Code executed in user-mode has reduced CSR access rights. Furthermore, user-mode accesses to the address space (like peripheral/IO devices) can be constrained via the physical memory protection. Any kind of privilege rights violation will raise an exception to allow Full Virtualization.

3.6.7. X ISA Extension

The NEORV32-specific ISA extensions X is always enabled. The most important points of the NEORV32-specific extensions are: * The CPU provides 16 fast interrupt interrupts (FIRQ), which are controlled via custom bits in the mie and mip CSRs. These extensions are mapped to CSR bits, that are available for custom use according to the RISC-V specs. Also, custom trap codes for mcause are implemented. * All undefined/unimplemented/malformed/illegal instructions do raise an illegal instruction exception (see Full Virtualization). * There are NEORV32-Specific CSRs.

3.6.8. Zalrsc ISA Extension

The Zalrsc ISA extension is a sub-extension of the RISC-V atomic memory access (A) ISA extension and includes instructions for reservation-set operations (load-reservate lr and store-conditional sc) only. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zalrsc generic.

AMO / A Emulation
The atomic memory access / read-modify-write operations of the A ISA extension can be emulated using the LR and SC operations (quote from the RISC-V spec.: "Any AMO can be emulated by an LR/SC pair."). The NEORV32 Core Libraries provide an emulation wrapper for emulating AMO/read-modify-write instructions that is based on LR/SC pairs. A demo/program can be found in sw/example/atomic_test.
Table 51. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Load-reservate word

lr.w

5

Store-conditional word

sc.w

5

aq and rl Bits
The instruction word’s aq and lr memory ordering bits are not evaluated by the hardware at all.
Atomic Memory Access on Hardware Level
More information regarding the atomic memory accesses and the according reservation sets can be found in section Reservation Set Controller.

3.6.9. Zifencei ISA Extension

The Zifencei CPU extension allows manual synchronization of the instruction stream. This extension is always enabled.

NEORV32 Fence Instructions
The NEORV32 treats both fence instructions (fence = data fence, fence.i = instruction fence) in exactly the same way. Both instructions cause a flush of the CPU’s instruction prefetch buffer and also send a fence request via the system bus (see Bus Interface). This system bus fence operation will, for example, clear/flush all downstream caches.
Table 52. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Instruction fence

fence.i

5

3.6.10. Zfinx ISA Extension

The Zfinx floating-point extension is an alternative of the standard F floating-point ISA extension. It also uses the integer register file x to store and operate on floating-point data instead of a dedicated floating-point register file. Thus, the Zfinx extension requires less hardware resources and features faster context changes. This also implies that there are NO dedicated f register file-related load/store or move instructions. The Zfinx extension’S floating-point unit is controlled via dedicated Floating-Point CSRs. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-process (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_fpu.vhd).

Fused / Multiply-Add Instructions
Fused multiply-add instructions f[n]m[add/sub].s are not supported. A special GCC switch is used to prevent the compiler from emitting contracted/fused floating-point operations (see Default Compiler Flags).
Division and Squarer Root Instructions
Division fdiv.s and square root fsqrt.s instructions are not supported yet.
Subnormal Number
Subnormal numbers ("de-normalized" numbers, i.e. exponent = 0) are not supported by the NEORV32 FPU. Subnormal numbers are flushed to zero setting them to +/- 0 before being processed by any FPU operation. If a computational instruction generates a subnormal result it is also flushed to zero during normalization.
Table 53. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Artihmetic

fadd.s

110

Artihmetic

fsub.s

112

Artihmetic

fmul.s

22

Compare

fmin.s fmax.s feq.s flt.s fle.s

13

Conversion

fcvt.w.s fcvt.wu.s fcvt.s.w fcvt.s.wu

48

Misc

fsgnj.s fsgnjn.s fsgnjx.s fclass.s

12

3.6.11. Zicntr ISA Extension

The Zicntr ISA extension adds the basic cycle[h], mcycle[h], instret[h] and minstret[h] counter CSRs. Section (Machine) Counter and Timer CSRs shows a list of all Zicntr-related CSRs.

Time CSRs
The user-mode time[h] CSRs are not implemented. Any access will trap allowing the trap handler to retrieve system time from the Machine System Timer (MTIME).
Mandatory Extension
This extensions is stated as mandatory by the RISC-V spec. However, area-constrained setups may remove support for these counters.
Constrained Access
User-level access to the counter CSRs can be constrained by the mcounteren CSR.

3.6.12. Zicond ISA Extension

The Zicond ISA extension adds integer conditional move primitives that allow to implement branch-less control flows. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zicond generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_cond.vhd).

Table 54. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Conditional

czero.eqz czero.nez

3

3.6.13. Zicsr ISA Extension

This ISA extensions provides instructions for accessing the Control and Status Registers (CSRs) as well as further privileged-architecture extensions. This extension is mandatory and cannot be disabled. Hence, there is no generic for enabling/disabling this ISA extension.

Side-Effects if Destination is Zero-Register
If rd=x0 for the csrrw[i] instructions there will be no actual read access to the according CSR. However, access privileges are still enforced so these instruction variants do cause side-effects (the RISC-V spec. state that these combinations "shall" not cause any side-effects).
Table 55. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

System

csrrw[i] csrrs[i] csrrc[i]

3

3.6.14. Zihpm ISA Extension

In additions to the base counters the NEORV32 CPU provides up to 13 hardware performance monitors (HPM 3..15), which can be used to benchmark applications. Each HPM consists of an N-bit wide counter (split in a high-word 32-bit CSR and a low-word 32-bit CSR), where N is defined via the top’s HPM_CNT_WIDTH generic and a corresponding event configuration CSR.

The event configuration CSR defines the architectural events that lead to an increment of the associated HPM counter. See section Hardware Performance Monitors (HPM) CSRs for a list of all HPM-related CSRs and event configurations.

Machine-Mode HPMs Only
Note that only the machine-mode hardware performance counter CSR are available (mhpmcounter*[h]). Accessing any user-mode HPM CSR (hpmcounter*[h]) will raise an illegal instruction exception.
Increment Inhibit
The event-driven increment of the HPMs can be deactivated individually via the mcountinhibit CSR.

3.6.15. Zba ISA Extension

The Zba sub-extension is part of the RISC-V bit manipulation ISA specification (B ISA Extension) and adds shifted-add / address-generation instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zba generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_bitmanip.vhd).

Table 56. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Shifted-add

sh1add sh2add sh3add

4

3.6.16. Zbb ISA Extension

The Zbb sub-extension is part of the RISC-V bit manipulation ISA specification (B ISA Extension) and adds the basic bit manipulation instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zbb generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_bitmanip.vhd).

Table 57. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Logic with negate

andn orn xnor

4

Count leading/trailing zeros

clz ctz

6 + 1..32; FAST_SHIFT: 4

Count population

cpop

6 + 32; FAST_SHIFT: 4

Integer maximum/minimum

min[u] max[u]

4

Sign/zero extension

sext.b sext.h zext

4

Bitwise rotation

rol ror[i]

6 + shift_amount; FAST_SHIFT: 4

OR-combine

orc.b

4

Byte-reverse

rev8

4

Shift Operations
Shift operations can be accelerated (at the cost of additional logic resources) by enabling the FAST_SHIFT_EN configuration option that will replace the (time-variant) bit-serial shifter by a (time-constant) barrel shifter.

3.6.17. Zbs ISA Extension

The Zbs sub-extension is part of the RISC-V bit manipulation ISA specification (B ISA Extension) and adds single-bit operations. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zbs generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_bitmanip.vhd).

Table 58. Instructions and Timing
Single-bit sbset[i] sbclr[i] sbinv[i] sbext[i] 4

3.6.18. Zbkb ISA Extension

The Zbkb sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and extends the RISC-V bit manipulation ISA extension with additional instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zbkb generic. Note that enabling this extension will also enable the Zbb basic bit-manipulation ISA extension (which is extended by Zknb). This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_bitmanip.vhd).

Table 59. Instructions and Timing (in addition to Zbb)
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Packing

pack packh

4

Interleaving

zip unzip

4

Byte-wise bit reversal

brev8

4

3.6.19. Zbkc ISA Extension

The Zbkc sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA extension and adds carry-less multiplication instruction. ISA extension with additional instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zbkc generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_bitmanip.vhd).

Table 60. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Carry-less multiply

clmul clmulh

6 + 32

3.6.20. Zbkx ISA Extension

The Zbkx sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and adds crossbar permutation instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zbkx generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_crypto.vhd).

Table 61. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Crossbar permutation

xperm8 xperm4

4

3.6.21. Zkn ISA Extension

The Zkn ISA extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and defines the "NIST algorithm suite". This ISA extension cannot be enabled by a specific generic. Instead, it is enabled if a specific set of cryptography-related sub-extensions is enabled.

The Zkn extension is shorthand for the following set of other extensions:

A processor configuration which implements Zkn must implement all of the above extensions.

3.6.22. Zknd ISA Extension

The Zknd sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and adds NIST AES decryption instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zknd generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_crypto.vhd).

Table 62. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

AES decryption

aes32dsi aes32dsmi

6

3.6.23. Zkne ISA Extension

The Zkne sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and adds NIST AES encryption instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zkne generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_crypto.vhd).

Table 63. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

AES decryption

aes32esi aes32esmi

6

3.6.24. Zknh ISA Extension

The Zknh sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and adds NIST hash function instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zknh generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_crypto.vhd).

Table 64. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

sha256

sha256sig0 sha256sig1 sha256sum0 sha256sum1

4

sha512

sha512sig0h sha512sig0l sha512sig1h sha512sig1l sha512sum0r sha512sum1r

4

3.6.25. Zks ISA Extension

The Zks ISA extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and defines the "ShangMi algorithm suite". This ISA extension cannot be enabled by a specific generic. Instead, it is enabled if a specific set of cryptography-related sub-extensions is enabled.

The Zks extension is shorthand for the following set of other extensions:

A processor configuration which implements Zks must implement all of the above extensions.

3.6.26. Zksed ISA Extension

The Zksed sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and adds ShangMi block cypher and key schedule instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zksed generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_crypto.vhd).

Table 65. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Block cyphers

sm4ed

6

Key schedule

sm4ks

6

3.6.27. Zksh ISA Extension

The Zksh sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and adds ShangMi hash function instructions. It is enabled by the top’s RISCV_ISA_Zksh generic. This ISA extension is implemented as multi-cycle ALU co-processor (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_crypto.vhd).

Table 66. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Hash

sm3p0 sm3p1

6

3.6.28. Zkt ISA Extension

The Zkt sub-extension is part of the RISC-V scalar cryptography ISA specification and guarantees data independent execution times of cryptographic and cryptography-related instructions. The ISA extension cannot be enabled by a specific generic. Instead, it is enabled implicitly by certain CPU configurations.

The RISC-V Zkt specifications provides a list of instructions that are included within this specification. However, not all instructions are required to be implemented. Rather, every one of these instructions that the core does implement must adhere to the requirements of Zkt.

Table 67. Zkt instruction listing
Parent extension Instructions Data independent execution time?

RVI

lui auipc add[i] slt[i][u] xor[i] or[i] and[i] sub

yes

sll[i] srl[i] sra[i]

yes if FAST_SHIFT_EN enabled

RVM

mul[h] mulh[s]u

yes

RVC

c.nop c.addi c.lui c.andi c.sub c.xor c.and c.mv c.add

yes

c.srli c.srai c.slli

yes if FAST_SHIFT_EN enabled

RVK

aes32ds[m]i aes32es[m]i sha256sig* sha512sig* sha512sum* sm3p0 sm3p1 sm4ed sm4ks

yes

RVB

xperm4 xperm8 andn orn xnor pack[h] brev8 rev8

yes

ror[i] rol

yes if FAST_SHIFT_EN enabled

3.6.29. Zmmul - ISA Extension

This is a sub-extension of the M ISA Extension ISA extension. It implements only the multiplication operations of the M extensions and is intended for size-constrained setups that require hardware-based integer multiplications but not hardware-based divisions, which will be computed entirely in software. Note that the Zmmul - ISA Extension and M ISA Extension are mutually exclusive.

3.6.30. Zxcfu ISA Extension

The Zxcfu presents a NEORV32-specific ISA extension. It adds the Custom Functions Unit (CFU) to the CPU core, which allows to add custom RISC-V instructions to the processor core. For detailed information regarding the CFU, its hardware and the according software interface see section Custom Functions Unit (CFU).

Software can utilize the custom instructions by using intrinsics, which are basically inline assembly functions that behave like regular C functions but that evaluate to a single custom instruction word (no calling overhead at all).

CFU Execution Time
The actual CFU execution time depends on the logic being implemented. The CPU architecture requires a minimal execution time of 3 cycles (purely combinatorial CFU operation) and automatically terminates execution after 512 cycles if the CFU does not complete operation within this time window.
Table 68. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

Custom instructions

Instruction words with custom-0 or custom-1 opcode

3 …​ 3+512

3.6.31. Smpmp ISA Extension

The NEORV32 physical memory protection (PMP) provides an elementary memory protection mechanism that can be used to constrain read, write and execute rights of arbitrary memory regions. The NEORV32 PMP is fully compatible to the RISC-V Privileged Architecture Specifications. In general, the PMP can grant permissions to user mode, which by default has none, and can revoke permissions from M-mode, which by default has full permissions. The PMP is configured via the Machine Physical Memory Protection CSRs.

Several Processor Top Entity - Generics are provided to fine-tune the CPU’s PMP capabilities: * PMP_NUM_REGIONS defines the number of implemented PMP region * PMP_MIN_GRANULARITY defines the minimal granularity of each region * PMP_TOR_MODE_EN controls the implementation of the top-of-region (TOR) mode * PMP_NAP_MODE_EN controls the implementation of the naturally-aligned-power-of-two (NA4 and NAPOT) modes

PMP Rules when in Debug Mode
When in debug-mode all PMP rules are ignored making the debugger have maximum access rights.
Protected Instruction Fetches
New instruction fetches are always triggered even when denied by a certain PMP rule. However, the fetched instruction(s) will not be executed and will not change CPU core state. Instead, they will raise a bus exception when reaching the CPU’s executions stage.

3.6.32. Sdext ISA Extension

This ISA extension enables the RISC-V-compatible "external debug support" by implementing the CPU "debug mode", which is required for the on-chip debugger. See section On-Chip Debugger (OCD) / CPU Debug Mode for more information.

Table 69. Instructions and Timing
Class Instructions Execution cycles

System

dret

5

3.6.33. Sdtrig ISA Extension

This ISA extension implements the RISC-V-compatible "trigger module". See section On-Chip Debugger (OCD) / Trigger Module for more information.

3.7. Custom Functions Unit (CFU)

The Custom Functions Unit (CFU) is the central part of the NEORV32-specific Zxcfu ISA Extension and represents the actual hardware module that can be used to implement custom RISC-V instructions.

The CFU is intended for operations that are inefficient in terms of performance, latency, energy consumption or program memory requirements when implemented entirely in software. Some potential application fields and exemplary use-cases might include:

  • AI: sub-word / vertical vector/SIMD operations like processing all four sub-bytes of a 32-bit data word individually

  • Cryptographic: bit substitution and permutation

  • Communication: data conversions like binary to gray-code

  • Arithmetic: BCD (binary-coded decimal) operations; multiply-add operations; shift-and-add algorithms like CORDIC or BKM

  • Image processing: look-up-tables for color space transformations

  • implementing instructions from other RISC-V ISA extensions that are not yet supported by NEORV32

The NEORV32 CFU supports two different instruction formats (R3-type and R4-type; see CFU Instruction Formats) and also allows to implement up to 4 CFU-internal custom control and status registers (see CFU Control and Status Registers (CFU-CSRs)).

CFU Complexity
The CFU is not intended for complex and CPU-independent functional units that implement complete accelerators (like block-based AES encryption). These kind of accelerators should be implemented as memory-mapped co-processor via the Custom Functions Subsystem (CFS) to allow CPU-independent operation. A comparative survey of all NEORV32-specific hardware extension/customization options is provided in the user guide section Adding Custom Hardware Modules.
Default CFU Hardware Example
The default CFU module (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_cfu.vhd) implements the Extended Tiny Encryption Algorithm (XTEA) as "real world" application example.

3.7.1. CFU Instruction Formats

The custom instructions executed by the CFU utilize a specific opcode space in the rv32 32-bit instruction encoding space that has been explicitly reserved for user-defined extensions by the RISC-V specifications ("Guaranteed Non-Standard Encoding Space"). The NEORV32 CFU uses the custom-0 and custom-1 opcodes to identify the instruction implemented by the CFU and to differentiate between the predefined instruction formats.

The NEORV32 CFU utilizes these two opcodes to support user-defined R3-type instructions (2 source registers, 1 destination register) and R4-type instructions (3 source registers, 1 destination register). Both instruction formats are compliant to the RISC-V specification.

The provided instructions formats are predefined to allow an easy integration framework. However, system designers are free to ignore these and use their own instruction types and formats.
CFU R3-Type Instructions

The R3-type CFU instructions operate on two source registers rs1 and rs2 and return the processing result to the destination register rd. The actual operation can be defined by using the funct7 and funct3 bit fields. These immediates can also be used to pass additional data to the CFU like offsets, look-up-tables addresses or shift-amounts. However, the actual functionality is entirely user-defined. Note that all immediate values are always compile-time-static.

Example operation: rd ⇐ rs1 xnor rs2 (bit-wise logical XNOR)

cfu r3type instruction
Figure 10. CFU R3-type instruction format
  • funct7: 7-bit immediate (immediate data or function select)

  • rs2: address of second source register (providing 32-bit source data)

  • rs1: address of first source register (providing 32-bit source data)

  • funct3: 3-bit immediate (immediate data or function select)

  • rd: address of destination register (32-bit processing result)

  • opcode: 0001011 (RISC-V custom-0 opcode)

Instruction encoding space
By using the funct7 and funct3 bit fields entirely for selecting the actual operation a total of 1024 custom R3-type instructions can be implemented (7-bit + 3-bit = 10 bit → 1024 different values).
CFU R4-Type Instructions

The R4-type CFU instructions operate on three source registers rs1, rs2 and rs2 and return the processing result to the destination register rd. The actual operation can be defined by using the funct3 bit field. Alternatively, this immediate can also be used to pass additional data to the CFU like offsets, look-up-tables addresses or shift-amounts. However, the actual functionality is entirely user-defined. Note that all immediate values are always compile-time-static.

Example operation: rd ⇐ (rs1 * rs2 + rs3)[31:0] (multiply-and-accumulate; "MAC")

cfu r4type instruction
Figure 11. CFU R4-type instruction format
  • rs3: address of third source register (providing 32-bit source data)

  • rs2: address of second source register (providing 32-bit source data)

  • rs1: address of first source register (providing 32-bit source data)

  • funct3: 3-bit immediate (immediate data or function select)

  • rd: address of destination register (32-bit processing result)

  • opcode: 0101011 (RISC-V custom-1 opcode)

  • ⚠️ bits [26:25] of the R4-type instruction word are unused. However, these bits are ignored by CPU’s instruction decoder and can be retrieved via the CFU’s funct7_i(6 downto 5) signal.

Instruction encoding space
By using the funct3 bit field entirely for selecting the actual operation a total of 8 custom R4-type instructions can be implemented (3-bit → 8 different values).
Re-purposing R4-type instructions as additional R3-type instructions
Advanced user can use the custom-1 opcode to implement additional R3-type instructions instead of the predefined r4-type instructions.

3.7.2. Using Custom Instructions in Software

The custom instructions provided by the CFU can be used in plain C code by using intrinsics. Intrinsics behave like "normal" C functions but under the hood they are a set of macros that hide the complexity of inline assembly, which is used to construct the custom 32-bit instruction words. Using intrinsics removes the need to modify the compiler, built-in libraries or the assembler when using custom instructions. Each intrinsic will be compiled into a single 32-bit instruction word without any overhead providing maximum code efficiency.

The NEORV32 software framework provides two pre-defined prototypes for custom instructions, which are defined in sw/lib/include/neorv32_cpu_cfu.h:

Listing 11. CFU instruction prototypes
uint32_t neorv32_cfu_r3_instr(funct7, funct3, rs1, rs2); // R3-type instructions
uint32_t neorv32_cfu_r4_instr(funct3, rs1, rs2, rs3);    // R4-type instructions

The intrinsic functions always return a 32-bit value of type uint32_t (the processing result), which can be discarded if not needed. Each intrinsic function requires several arguments depending on the instruction type/format:

  • funct7 - 7-bit immediate (R3-type)

  • funct3 - 3-bit immediate (R3-type, R4-type)

  • rs1 - source operand 1, 32-bit (R3-type, R4-type)

  • rs2 - source operand 2, 32-bit (R3-type, R4-type)

  • rs3 - source operand 3, 32-bit (R4-type)

The funct3 and funct7 bit-fields are used to pass 3-bit or 7-bit literals to the CFU. The rs1, rs2 and rs3 arguments pass the actual data to the CFU via register addresses. These register arguments can be populated with variables or literals; the compiler will add the required code to move the data into a register before passing it to the CFU. The following examples shows how to pass arguments:

Listing 12. CFU instruction usage example
uint32_t tmp = some_function();
...
uint32_t res = neorv32_cfu_r3_instr(0b0000000, 0b101, tmp, 123);
uint32_t foo = neorv32_cfu_r4_instr(0b011, tmp, res, (uint32_t)some_array[i]);
neorv32_cfu_r3_instr(0b0100100, 0b001, tmp, foo); // discard result
CFU Example Program
There is an example program for the CFU, which shows how to use the default CFU hardware module. This example program is located in sw/example/demo_cfu.

3.7.3. CFU Control and Status Registers (CFU-CSRs)

The CPU provides up to four control and status registers (cfureg*) to be used within the CFU. These CSRs are mapped to the "custom user-mode read/write" CSR address space, which is explicitly reserved for platform-specific application by the RISC-V spec. For example, these CSRs can be used to pass additional operands to the CFU, to obtain additional results, to check processing status or to configure operation modes.

Listing 13. CFU CSR Access Example
neorv32_cpu_csr_write(CSR_CFUREG0, 0xabcdabcd); // write data to CFU CSR 0
uint32_t tmp = neorv32_cpu_csr_read(CSR_CFUREG3); // read data from CFU CSR 3
Additional CFU-internal CSRs
If more than four CFU-internal CSRs are required the designer can implement an "indirect access mechanism" based on just two of the default CSRs: one CSR is used to configure the index while the other is used as alias to exchange data with the indexed CFU-internal CSR - this concept is similar to the RISC-V Indirect CSR Access Extension Specification (Smcsrind).
Security Considerations
The CFU CSRs are mapped to the user-mode CSR space so software running at any privilege level can access these CSRs.

3.7.4. Custom Instructions Hardware

The actual functionality of the CFU’s custom instructions is defined by the user-defined logic inside the CFU hardware module (rtl/core/neorv32_cpu_cp_cfu.vhd). This file is highly commented to explain the interface and to illustrate hardware design considerations.

CFU operations can be entirely combinatorial (like bit-reversal) so the result is available at the end of the current clock cycle. However, operations can also take several clock cycles to complete (like multiplications) and may also include internal states and memories.

CFU Hardware Resource Requirements
Enabling the CFU and actually implementing R4-type instructions (or more precisely, using the third register source rs3) will add an additional read port to the core’s register file increasing resource requirements of the register file by 50%.
CFU Execution Time
The CFU has to complete computation within a bound time window (default = 512 clock cycles). Otherwise, the CFU operation is terminated by the CPU execution logic and an illegal instruction exception is raised. See section CPU Arithmetic Logic Unit for more information.
CFU Exception
The CFU can intentionally raise an illegal instruction exception by not asserting the done at all causing an execution timeout. For example this can be used to signal invalid configurations/operations to the runtime environment. See the documentation in the CFU’s VHDL source file for more information.

3.8. Control and Status Registers (CSRs)

The following table shows a summary of all available NEORV32 CSRs. The address field defines the CSR address for the CSR access instructions. The "Name [ASM]" column provides the CSR name aliases that can be used in (inline) assembly. The "Name [C]" column lists the name aliases that are defined by the NEORV32 core library. These can be used in plain C code. The "Access" column shows the minimal required privilege mode required for accessing the according CSR (M = machine-mode, U = user-mode, D = debug-mode) and the read/write capabilities (RW = read-write, RO = read-only)

Unused, Reserved, Unimplemented and Disabled CSRs
All CSRs and CSR bits that are not listed in the table below are unimplemented and are hardwired to zero. Additionally, CSRs that are unavailable ("disabled") because the according ISA extension is not enabled are also considered unimplemented and are also hardwired to zero. Any access to such a CSR will raise an illegal instruction exception. All writable CSRs provide WARL behavior (write all values; read only legal values). Application software should always read back a CSR after writing to check if the targeted bits can actually be modified.
Table 70. NEORV32 Control and Status Registers (CSRs)
Address Name [ASM] Name [C] Access Description

Floating-Point CSRs

0x001

fflags

CSR_FFLAGS

URW

Floating-point accrued exceptions

0x002

frm

CSR_FRM

URW

Floating-point dynamic rounding mode

0x003

fcsr

CSR_FCSR

URW

Floating-point control and status

Machine Trap Setup CSRs

0x300

mstatus

CSR_MSTATUS

MRW

Machine status register - low word

0x301

misa

CSR_MISA

MRW

Machine CPU ISA and extensions

0x304

mie

CSR_MIE

MRW

Machine interrupt enable register

0x305

mtvec

CSR_MTVEC

MRW

Machine trap-handler base address for ALL traps

0x306

mcounteren

CSR_MCOUNTEREN

MRW

Machine counter-enable register

0x310

mstatush

CSR_MSTATUSH

MRW

Machine status register - high word

Machine Configuration CSRs

0x30a

menvcfg

CSR_MENVCFG

MRW

Machine environment configuration register - low word

0x31a

menvcfgh

CSR_MENVCFGH

MRW

Machine environment configuration register - high word

Machine Counter Setup CSRs

0x320

mcountinhibit

CSR_MCOUNTINHIBIT

MRW

Machine counter-inhibit register

Machine Trap Handling CSRs

0x340

mscratch

CSR_MSCRATCH

MRW

Machine scratch register

0x341

mepc

CSR_MEPC

MRW

Machine exception program counter

0x342

mcause

CSR_MCAUSE

MRW

Machine trap cause

0x343

mtval

CSR_MTVAL

MRW

Machine trap value

0x344

mip

CSR_MIP

MRW

Machine interrupt pending register

0x34a

mtinst

CSR_MTINST

MRW

Machine trap instruction

Machine Physical Memory Protection CSRs

0x3a0 .. 0x303

pmpcfg0 .. pmpcfg3

CSR_PMPCFG0 .. CSR_PMPCFG3

MRW

Physical memory protection configuration registers

0x3b0 .. 0x3bf

pmpaddr0 .. pmpaddr15

CSR_PMPADDR0 .. CSR_PMPADDR15

MRW

Physical memory protection address registers

Trigger Module CSRs

0x7a0

tselect

CSR_TSELECT

MRW

Trigger select register

0x7a1

tdata1

CSR_TDATA1

MRW

Trigger data register 1

0x7a2

tdata2

CSR_TDATA2

MRW

Trigger data register 2

0x7a4

tinfo

CSR_TINFO

MRW

Trigger information register

CPU Debug Mode CSRs

0x7b0

dcsr

-

DRW

Debug control and status register

0x7b1

dpc

-

DRW

Debug program counter

0x7b2

dscratch0

-

DRW

Debug scratch register 0

Custom Functions Unit (CFU) CSRs

0x800 .. 0x803

cfureg0 .. cfureg3

CSR_CFUCREG0 .. CSR_CFUCREG3

URW

Custom CFU registers 0 to 3

(Machine) Counter and Timer CSRs

0xb00

mcycle

CSR_MCYCLE

MRW

Machine cycle counter low word

0xb02

minstret

CSR_MINSTRET

MRW

Machine instruction-retired counter low word

0xb80

mcycleh

CSR_MCYCLEH

MRW

Machine cycle counter high word

0xb82

minstreth

CSR_MINSTRETH

MRW

Machine instruction-retired counter high word

0xc00

cycle

CSR_CYCLE

URO

Cycle counter low word

0xc02

instret

CSR_INSTRET

URO

Instruction-retired counter low word

0xc80

cycleh

CSR_CYCLEH

URO

Cycle counter high word

0xc82

instreth

CSR_INSTRETH

URO

Instruction-retired counter high word

Hardware Performance Monitors (HPM) CSRs

0x323 .. 0x32f

mhpmevent3 .. mhpmevent15

CSR_MHPMEVENT3 .. CSR_MHPMEVENT15

MRW

Machine performance-monitoring event select for counter 3..15

0xb03 .. 0xb0f

mhpmcounter3 .. mhpmcounter15

CSR_MHPMCOUNTER3 .. CSR_MHPMCOUNTER15

MRW

Machine performance-monitoring counter 3..15 low word

0xb83 .. 0xb8f

mhpmcounter3h .. mhpmcounter15h

CSR_MHPMCOUNTER3H .. CSR_MHPMCOUNTER15H

MRW

Machine performance-monitoring counter 3..15 high word

Machine Information CSRs

0xf11

mvendorid

CSR_MVENDORID

MRO

Machine vendor ID

0xf12

marchid

CSR_MARCHID

MRO

Machine architecture ID

0xf13

mimpid

CSR_MIMPID

MRO

Machine implementation ID / version

0xf14

mhartid

CSR_MHARTID

MRO

Machine hardware thread ID

0xf15

mconfigptr

CSR_MCONFIGPTR

MRO

Machine configuration pointer register

NEORV32-Specific CSRs

0xfc0

mxisa

CSR_MXISA

MRO

NEORV32-specific "eXtended" machine CPU ISA and extensions

3.8.1. Floating-Point CSRs

fflags

Name

Floating-point accrued exceptions

Address

0x001

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zfinx

Description

FPU status flags.

Table 71. fflags CSR bits
Bit R/W Function

0

r/w

NX: inexact

1

r/w

UF: underflow

2

r/w

OF: overflow

3

r/w

DZ: division by zero

4

r/w

NV: invalid operation


frm

Name

Floating-point dynamic rounding mode

Address

0x002

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zfinx

Description

The frm CSR is used to configure the rounding mode of the FPU.

Table 72. frm CSR bits
Bit R/W Function

2:0

r/w

Rounding mode


fcsr

Name

Floating-point control and status register

Address

0x003

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zfinx

Description

The fcsr provides combined access to the fflags and frm flags.

Table 73. fcsr CSR bits
Bit R/W Function

4:0

r/w

Accrued exception flags (fflags)

7:5

r/w

Rounding mode (frm)

3.8.2. Machine Trap Setup CSRs

mstatus

Name

Machine status register - low word

Address

0x300

Reset value

0x00001800

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mstatus CSR is used to configure general machine environment parameters.

Table 74. mstatus CSR bits
Bit Name [C] R/W Function

3

CSR_MSTATUS_MIE

r/w

MIE: Machine-mode interrupt enable flag

7

CSR_MSTATUS_MPIE

r/w

MPIE: Previous machine-mode interrupt enable flag state

12:11

CSR_MSTATUS_MPP_H : CSR_MSTATUS_MPP_L

r/w

MPP: Previous machine privilege mode, 11 = machine-mode "M", 00 = user-mode "U"; other values will fall-back to machine-mode

17

CSR_MSTATUS_MPRV

r/w

MPRV: Effective privilege mode for load/stores; use MPP as effective privilege mode when set; hardwired to zero if user-mode not implemented

21

CSR_MSTATUS_TW

r/w

TW: Trap on execution of wfi instruction in user mode when set; hardwired to zero if user-mode not implemented

If the core is in user-mode, machine-mode interrupts are globally enabled even if mstatus.mie is cleared: "Interrupts for higher-privilege modes, y>x, are always globally enabled regardless of the setting of the global yIE bit for the higher-privilege mode." - RISC-V ISA Spec.


misa

Name

ISA and extensions

Address

0x301

Reset value

DEFINED, according to enabled ISA extensions

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The misa CSR provides information regarding the availability of basic RISC-V ISa extensions.

The NEORV32 misa CSR is read-only. Hence, active CPU extensions are entirely defined by pre-synthesis configurations and cannot be switched on/off during runtime. For compatibility reasons any write access to this CSR is simply ignored and will not cause an illegal instruction exception.
Table 75. misa CSR bits
Bit Name [C] R/W Function

1

CSR_MISA_B_EXT

r/-

B: CPU extension (bit-manipulation) available, set when B ISA Extension enabled

2

CSR_MISA_C_EXT

r/-

C: CPU extension (compressed instruction) available, set when C ISA Extension enabled

4

CSR_MISA_E_EXT

r/-

E: CPU extension (embedded) available, set when E ISA Extension enabled

8

CSR_MISA_I_EXT

r/-

I: CPU base ISA, cleared when E ISA Extension enabled

12

CSR_MISA_M_EXT

r/-

M: CPU extension (mul/div) available, set when M ISA Extension enabled

20

CSR_MISA_U_EXT

r/-

U: CPU extension (user mode) available, set when U ISA Extension enabled

23

CSR_MISA_X_EXT

r/-

X: bit is always set to indicate non-standard / NEORV32-specific extensions

31:30

CSR_MISA_MXL_HI_EXT : CSR_MISA_MXL_LO_EXT

r/-

MXL: 32-bit architecture indicator (always 01)

Machine-mode software can discover available Z* sub-extensions (like Zicsr or Zfinx) by checking the NEORV32-specific mxisa CSR.


mie

Name

Machine interrupt-enable register

Address

0x304

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mie CSR is used to enable/disable individual interrupt sources.

Table 76. mie CSR bits
Bit Name [C] R/W Function

3

CSR_MIE_MSIE

r/w

MSIE: Machine software interrupt enable

7

CSR_MIE_MTIE

r/w

MTIE: Machine timer interrupt enable (from Machine System Timer (MTIME))

11

CSR_MIE_MEIE

r/w

MEIE: Machine external interrupt enable

31:16

CSR_MIE_FIRQ15E : CSR_MIE_FIRQ0E

r/w

Fast interrupt channel 15..0 enable


mtvec

Name

Machine trap-handler base address

Address

0x305

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mtvec CSR holds the trap vector configuration.

Table 77. mtvec CSR bits
Bit R/W Function

1:0

r/w

MODE: mode configuration, 00 = DIRECT, 01 = VECTORED; other encodings are reserved.

31:2

r/w

BASE: in DIRECT mode = 4-byte-aligned base address of trap base handler, all traps jump to pc = BASE; in VECTORED mode = 128-byte-aligned base address of trap vector table, interrupts cause a jump to pc = BASE + 4 * mcause and exceptions a jump to pc = BASE.

Interrupt Latency
The vectored mtvec mode is useful for reducing the time between interrupt request (IRQ) and servicing it (ISR). As software does not need to determine the interrupt cause the reduction in latency can be 5 to 10 times and as low as 26 cycles.


mcounteren

Name

Machine counter enable

Address

0x306

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zicntr & U

Description

The mcounteren CSR is used to constrain user-mode access to the CPU’s counter CSRs.

Table 78. mcounteren CSR bits
Bit Name [C] R/W

Function

0

CSR_MCOUNTEREN_CY

r/w

CY: User-mode is allowed to read cycle[h] CSRs when set

1

-

r/-

TM: not implemented, hardwired to zero

2

CSR_MCOUNTEREN_IR

r/w

IR: User-mode is allowed to read instret[h] CSRs when set

31:3

-


mstatush

Name

Machine status register - high word

Address

0x310

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The features of this CSR are not implemented yet. The register is read-only and always returns zero.

3.8.3. Machine Trap Handling CSRs

mscratch

Name

Scratch register for machine trap handlers

Address

0x340

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mscratch is a general-purpose machine-mode scratch register.


mepc

Name

Machine exception program counter

Address

0x341

Reset value

BOOT_ADDR (CPU boot address, see CPU Top Entity - Generics)

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mepc CSR provides the instruction address where execution has stopped/failed when an interrupt is triggered / an exception is raised. See section Traps, Exceptions and Interrupts for a list of all legal values. The mret instruction will return to the address stored in mepc by automatically moving mepc to the program counter.

mepc[0] is hardwired to zero. If IALIGN = 32 (i.e. C ISA Extension is disabled) then mepc[1] is also hardwired to zero.


mcause

Name

Machine trap cause

Address

0x342

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mcause CSRs shows the exact cause of a trap. See section Traps, Exceptions and Interrupts for a list of all legal values.

Table 79. mcause CSR bits
Bit R/W Function

4:0

r/w

Exception code: see NEORV32 Trap Listing

31

r/w

Interrupt: 1 if the trap is caused by an interrupt (0 if the trap is caused by an exception)


mtval

Name

Machine trap value

Address

0x343

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mtval CSR provides additional information why a trap was entered. See section Traps, Exceptions and Interrupts for more information.

Read-Only
Note that the NEORV32 mtval CSR is updated by the hardware only and cannot be written from software. However, any write-access will be ignored and will not cause an exception to maintain RISC-V compatibility.


mip

Name

Machine interrupt pending

Address

0x344

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mip CSR shows currently pending machine-mode interrupt requests. Any write access to this register is ignored.

Table 80. mip CSR bits
Bit Name [C] R/W Function

3

CSR_MIP_MSIP

r/-

MSIP: Machine software interrupt pending; cleared by platform-defined mechanism

7

CSR_MIP_MTIP

r/-

MTIP: Machine timer interrupt pending; cleared by platform-defined mechanism

11

CSR_MIP_MEIP

r/-

MEIP: Machine external interrupt pending; cleared by platform-defined mechanism

31:16

CSR_MIP_FIRQ15P : CSR_MIP_FIRQ0P

r/-

FIRQxP: Fast interrupt channel 15..0 pending; cleared by platform-defined mechanism

FIRQ Channel Mapping
See section NEORV32-Specific Fast Interrupt Requests for the mapping of the FIRQ channels and the according interrupt-triggering processor module.


mtinst

Name

Machine trap instruction

Address

0x34a

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mtinst CSR provides additional information why a trap was entered. See section Traps, Exceptions and Interrupts for more information.

Read-Only
Note that the NEORV32 mtinst CSR is updated by the hardware only and cannot be written from software. However, any write-access will be ignored and will not cause an exception to maintain RISC-V compatibility.
Instruction Transformation
The RISC-V priv. spec. suggests that the instruction word written to mtinst by the hardware should be "transformed". However, the NEORV32 mtinst CSR uses a simplified transformation scheme: if the trap-causing instruction is a standard 32-bit instruction, mtinst contains the exact instruction word that caused the trap. If the trap-causing instruction is a compressed instruction, mtinst contains the de-compressed 32-bit equivalent with bit 1 being cleared while all remaining bits represent the pre-decoded 32-bit instruction equivalent.

3.8.4. Machine Configuration CSRs

menvcfg

Name

Machine environment configuration register - low word

Address

0x30a

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & U

Description

Currently, the features of this CSR are not supported. Hence, the entire register is hardwired to all-zero.


menvcfgh

Name

Machine environment configuration register - high word

Address

0x31a

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & U

Description

Currently, the features of this CSR are not supported. Hence, the entire register is hardwired to all-zero.

3.8.5. Machine Physical Memory Protection CSRs

The physical memory protection system is configured via the PMP_NUM_REGIONS and PMP_MIN_GRANULARITY top entity generics. PMP_NUM_REGIONS defines the total number of implemented regions. Note that the maximum number of regions is constrained to 16. If trying to access a PMP-related CSR beyond PMP_NUM_REGIONS no illegal instruction exception is triggered. The according CSRs are read-only (writes are ignored) and always return zero. See section Smpmp ISA Extension for more information.

pmpcfg

Name

PMP region configuration registers

Address

0x3a0 (pmpcfg0)

0x3a1 (pmpcfg1)

0x3a2 (pmpcfg2)

0x3a3 (pmpcfg3)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Smpmp

Description

Configuration of physical memory protection regions. Each region provides an individual 8-bit array in these CSRs.

Table 81. pmpcfg0 CSR Bits
Bit Name [C] R/W Function

0

PMPCFG_R

r/w

R: Read permission

1

PMPCFG_W

r/w

W: Write permission

2

PMPCFG_X

r/w

X: Execute permission

4:3

PMPCFG_A_MSB : PMPCFG_A_LSB

r/w

A: Mode configuration (00 = OFF, 01 = TOR, 10 = NA4, 11 = NAPOT)

7

PMPCFG_L

r/w

L: Lock bit, prevents further write accesses, also enforces access rights in machine-mode, can only be cleared by CPU reset

Implemented Modes
In order to reduce the CPU size certain PMP modes (A bits) can be excluded from synthesis. Use the PMP_TOR_MODE_EN and PMP_NAP_MODE_EN Processor Top Entity - Generics to control implementation of the according modes.


pmpaddr

The pmpaddr* CSRs are used to configure the region’s address boundaries.

Name

Physical memory protection address registers

Address

0x3b0 (pmpaddr1)

0x3b1 (pmpaddr2)

0x3b2 (pmpaddr3)

0x3b3 (pmpaddr4)

0x3b4 (pmpaddr5)

0x3b5 (pmpaddr6)

0x3b6 (pmpaddr6)

0x3b7 (pmpaddr7)

0x3b8 (pmpaddr8)

0x3b9 (pmpaddr9)

0x3ba (pmpaddr10)

0x3bb (pmpaddr11)

0x3bc (pmpaddr12)

0x3bd (pmpaddr13)

0x3be (pmpaddr14)

0x3bf (pmpaddr15)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Smpmp

Description

Region address configuration. The two MSBs of each CSR are hardwired to zero (= bits 33:32 of the physical address).

3.8.6. Custom Functions Unit (CFU) CSRs

cfureg

Name

Custom (user-defined) CFU CSRs

Address

0x800 (cfureg0)

0x801 (cfureg1)

0x802 (cfureg2)

0x803 (cfureg3)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zxcfu

Description

User-defined CSRs to be used within the Custom Functions Unit (CFU).

3.8.7. (Machine) Counter and Timer CSRs

time[h] CSRs (Wall Clock Time)
The NEORV32 does not implement the user-mode time[h] registers. Any access to these registers will trap. It is recommended that the trap handler software provides a means of accessing the platform-defined Machine System Timer (MTIME).
Instruction Retired Counter Increment
The [m]instret[h] counter always increments when a instruction enters the pipeline’s execute stage no matter if this instruction is actually going to retire or if it causes an exception.
cycle[h]

Name

Cycle counter

Address

0xc00 (cycle)

0xc80 (cycleh)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zicntr

Description

The cycle[h] CSRs are user-mode shadow copies of the according mcycle[h] CSRs. The user-mode counter are read-only. Any write access will raise an illegal instruction exception.


instret[h]

Name

Instructions-retired counter

Address

0xc02 (instret)

0xc82 (instreth)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zicntr

Description

The instret[h] CSRs are user-mode shadow copies of the according minstret[h] CSRs. The user-mode counter are read-only. Any write access will raise an illegal instruction exception.


mcycle[h]

Name

Machine cycle counter

Address

0xb00 (mcycle)

0xb80 (mcycleh)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zicntr

Description

If not halted via the mcountinhibit CSR the cycle[h] CSRs will increment with every active CPU clock cycle (CPU not in sleep mode). These registers are read/write only for machine-mode software.


minstret[h]

Name

Machine instructions-retired counter

Address

0xb02 (minstret)

0xb82 (minstreth)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zicntr

Description

If not halted via the mcountinhibit CSR the minstret[h] CSRs will increment with every retired instruction. These registers are read/write only for machine-mode software

Instruction Retiring
Note that all executed instruction do increment the [m]instret[h] counters even if they do not retire (e.g. if the instruction causes an exception).

3.8.8. Hardware Performance Monitors (HPM) CSRs

Machine-Mode HPMs Only
Note that only the machine-mode hardware performance counter CSR are available (mhpmcounter*[h]). Accessing any user-mode HPM CSR (hpmcounter*[h]) will raise an illegal instruction exception.

The actual number of implemented hardware performance monitors is configured via the HPM_NUM_CNTS top entity generic, Note that always all 13 HPM counter and configuration registers (mhpmcounter*[h]) are implemented, but only the actually configured ones are implemented as "real" physical registers - the remaining ones will be hardwired to zero. If trying to access an HPM-related CSR beyond HPM_NUM_CNTS no illegal instruction exception is triggered. These CSRs are read-only, writes are ignored and reads always return zero.

The total counter width of the HPMs can be configured before synthesis via the HPM_CNT_WIDTH generic (0..64-bit). If HPM_NUM_CNTS is less than 64, all remaining MSB-aligned bits are hardwired to zero.

mhpmevent

Name

Machine hardware performance monitor event select

Address

0x233 (mhpmevent3)

0x234 (mhpmevent4)

0x235 (mhpmevent5)

0x236 (mhpmevent6)

0x237 (mhpmevent7)

0x238 (mhpmevent8)

0x239 (mhpmevent9)

0x23a (mhpmevent10)

0x23b (mhpmevent11)

0x23c (mhpmevent12)

0x23d (mhpmevent13)

0x23e (mhpmevent14)

0x23f (mhpmevent15)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zihpm

Description

The value in these CSRs define the architectural events that cause an increment of the according mhpmcounter*[h] counter(s). All available events are listed in the table below. If more than one event is selected, the according counter will increment if any of the enabled events is observed (logical OR). Note that the counter will only increment by 1 step per clock cycle even if more than one trigger event is observed.

Table 82. mhpmevent* CSR Bits
Bit Name [C] R/W Event Description

RISC-V-compatible

0

HPMCNT_EVENT_CY

r/w

active clock cycle (CPU not in Sleep Mode)

1

HPMCNT_EVENT_TM

r/-

not implemented, hardwired to zero

2

HPMCNT_EVENT_IR

r/w

any executed instruction (16-bit/compressed or 32-bit/uncompressed)

NEORV32-specific

3

HPMCNT_EVENT_COMPR

r/w

any executed 16-bit/compressed (C ISA Extension) instruction

4

HPMCNT_EVENT_WAIT_DIS

r/w

instruction dispatch wait cycle (wait for instruction prefetch-buffer refill (CPU Control Unit IPB); caused by a fence instruction, a control flow transfer or a instruction fetch bus wait cycle)

5

HPMCNT_EVENT_WAIT_ALU

r/w

any delay/wait cycle caused by a multi-cycle CPU Arithmetic Logic Unit operation

6

HPMCNT_EVENT_BRANCH

r/w

any executed branch instruction (unconditional, conditional-taken or conditional-not-taken)

7

HPMCNT_EVENT_BRANCHED

r/w

any control transfer operation (unconditional jump, taken conditional branch or trap entry/exit)

8

HPMCNT_EVENT_LOAD

r/w

any executed load operation (including atomic memory operations, Zalrsc ISA Extension)

9

HPMCNT_EVENT_STORE

r/w

any executed store operation (including atomic memory operations, Zalrsc ISA Extension)

10

HPMCNT_EVENT_WAIT_LSU

r/w

any memory/bus/cache/etc. delay/wait cycle while executing any load or store operation (caused by a data bus wait cycle))

11

HPMCNT_EVENT_TRAP

r/w

starting processing of any trap (Traps, Exceptions and Interrupts)

Instruction Retiring ("Retired == Executed")
The CPU HPM/counter logic treats all executed instruction as "retired" even if they raise an exception, cause an interrupt, trigger a privilege mode change or were not meant to retire (i.e. claimed by the RISC-V spec.).


mhpmcounter[h]

Name

Machine hardware performance monitor (HPM) counter

Address

0xb03, 0xb83 (mhpmcounter3, mhpmcounter3h)

0xb04, 0xb84 (mhpmcounter4, mhpmcounter4h)

0xb05, 0xb85 (mhpmcounter5, mhpmcounter5h)

0xb06, 0xb86 (mhpmcounter6, mhpmcounter6h)

0xb07, 0xb87 (mhpmcounter7, mhpmcounter7h)

0xb08, 0xb88 (mhpmcounter8, mhpmcounter8h)

0xb09, 0xb89 (mhpmcounter9, mhpmcounter9h)

0xb0a, 0xb8a (mhpmcounter10, mhpmcounter10h)

0xb0b, 0xb8b (mhpmcounter11, mhpmcounter11h)

0xb0c, 0xb8c (mhpmcounter12, mhpmcounter12h)

0xb0d, 0xb8d (mhpmcounter13, mhpmcounter13h)

0xb0e, 0xb8e (mhpmcounter14, mhpmcounter14h)

0xb0f, 0xb8f (mhpmcounter15, mhpmcounter15h)

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr & Zihpm

Description

If not halted via the mcountinhibit CSR the HPM counter CSR(s) increment whenever the configured event from the according mhpmevent CSR occurs. The counter registers are read/write for machine mode and are not accessible for lower-privileged software.

3.8.9. Machine Counter Setup CSRs

mcountinhibit

Name

Machine counter-inhibit register

Address

0x320

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

Set bit to halt the according counter CSR.

Table 83. mcountinhibit CSR Bits
Bit Name [C] R/W Description

0

CSR_MCOUNTINHIBIT_IR

r/w

IR: Set to 1 to halt [m]instret[h]; hardwired to zero if Zicntr ISA extension is disabled

1

-

r/-

TM: Hardwired to zero as time[h] CSRs are not implemented

2

CSR_MCOUNTINHIBIT_CY

r/w

CY: Set to 1 to halt [m]cycle[h]; hardwired to zero if Zicntr ISA extension is disabled

15:3

CSR_MCOUNTINHIBIT_HPM3 : CSR_MCOUNTINHIBIT_HPM15

r/w

HPMx: Set to 1 to halt [m]hpmcount*[h]; hardwired to zero if Zihpm ISA extension is disabled

3.8.10. Machine Information CSRs

mvendorid

Name

Machine vendor ID

Address

0xf11

Reset value

DEFINED

ISA

Zicsr

Description

Vendor ID (JEDEC identifier, lowest 11 bits), assigned via the JEDEC_ID top generic (Processor Top Entity - Generics).


marchid

Name

Machine architecture ID

Address

0xf12

Reset value

0x00000013

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The marchid CSR is read-only and provides the NEORV32 official RISC-V open-source architecture ID (decimal: 19, 32-bit hexadecimal: 0x00000013).


mimpid

Name

Machine implementation ID

Address

0xf13

Reset value

DEFINED

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mimpid CSR is read-only and provides the version of the NEORV32 as BCD-coded number (example: mimpid = 0x01020312 → 01.02.03.12 → version 1.2.3.12).


mhartid

Name

Machine hardware thread ID

Address

0xf14

Reset value

DEFINED

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The mhartid CSR is read-only and provides the core’s hart ID, which is assigned via the HW_THREAD_ID top generic (Processor Top Entity - Generics).


mconfigptr

Name

Machine configuration pointer register

Address

0xf15

Reset value

0x00000000

ISA

Zicsr

Description

The features of this CSR are not implemented yet. The register is read-only and always returns zero.

3.8.11. NEORV32-Specific CSRs

All NEORV32-specific CSRs are mapped to addresses that are explicitly reserved for custom Machine-Mode, read-only CSRs (assured by the RISC-V privileged specifications). Hence, these CSRs can only be accessed when in machine-mode. Any access outside of machine-mode will raise an illegal instruction exception.
mxisa

Name

Machine extended ISA and extensions register

Address

0xfc0

Reset value

DEFINED

ISA

Zicsr & X

Description

The mxisa CSRs is a NEORV32-specific read-only CSR that helps machine-mode software to discover ISA sub-extensions and CPU configuration options

Table 84. mxisa CSR Bits
Bit Name [C] R/W Description

0

CSR_MXISA_ZICSR

r/-

Zicsr ISA Extension available

1

CSR_MXISA_ZIFENCEI

r/-

Zifencei ISA Extension available

2

CSR_MXISA_ZMMUL

r/-

Zmmul - ISA Extension available

3

CSR_MXISA_ZXCFU

r/-

Zxcfu ISA Extension available

4

CSR_MXISA_ZKT

r/-

Zkt ISA Extension available

5

CSR_MXISA_ZFINX

r/-

Zfinx ISA Extension available

6

CSR_MXISA_ZICOND

r/-

Zicond ISA Extension available

7

CSR_MXISA_ZICNTR

r/-

Zicntr ISA Extension available

8

CSR_MXISA_SMPMP

r/-

Smpmp ISA Extension available

9

CSR_MXISA_ZIHPM

r/-

Zihpm ISA Extension available

10

CSR_MXISA_SDEXT

r/-

Sdext ISA Extension available

11

CSR_MXISA_SDTRIG

r/-

Sdtrig ISA Extension available

12

CSR_MXISA_ZBKX

r/-

Zbkx ISA Extension available

13

CSR_MXISA_ZKND

r/-

Zknd ISA Extension available

14

CSR_MXISA_ZKNE

r/-

Zkne ISA Extension available

15

CSR_MXISA_ZKNH

r/-

Zknh ISA Extension available

16

CSR_MXISA_ZBKB

r/-

Zbkb ISA Extension available

17

CSR_MXISA_ZBKC

r/-

Zbkc ISA Extension available

18

CSR_MXISA_ZKN

r/-

Zkn ISA Extension available

19

CSR_MXISA_ZKSH

r/-

Zksh ISA Extension available

20

CSR_MXISA_ZKSED

r/-

Zksed ISA Extension available

21

CSR_MXISA_ZKS

r/-

Zks ISA Extension available

22

CSR_MXISA_ZBA

r/-

Zba ISA Extension available

23

CSR_MXISA_ZBB

r/-

Zbb ISA Extension available

24

CSR_MXISA_ZBS

r/-

Zbs ISA Extension available

25

CSR_MXISA_ZALRSC

r/-

Zalrsc ISA Extension available

27:26

-

r/-

reserved, hardwired to zero

28

CSR_MXISA_RFHWRST

r/-

full hardware reset of register file available when set (REGFILE_HW_RST)

29

CSR_MXISA_FASTMUL

r/-

fast multiplication available when set (FAST_MUL_EN)

30

CSR_MXISA_FASTSHIFT

r/-

fast shifts available when set (FAST_SHIFT_EN)

31

CSR_MXISA_IS_SIM

r/-

set if CPU is being simulated (⚠️ not guaranteed)

3.9. Traps, Exceptions and Interrupts

In this document the following terminology is used (derived from the RISC-V trace specification available at https://github.com/riscv-non-isa/riscv-trace-spec):

  • exception: an unusual condition occurring at run time associated (i.e. synchronous) with an instruction in a RISC-V hart

  • interrupt: an external asynchronous event that may cause a RISC-V hart to experience an unexpected transfer of control

  • trap: the transfer of control to a trap handler caused by either an exception or an interrupt

Whenever an exception or interrupt is triggered, the CPU switches to machine-mode (if not already in machine-mode) and continues operation at the address being stored in the mtvec CSR. The cause of the the trap can be determined via the mcause CSR. A list of all implemented mcause values and the according description can be found below in section NEORV32 Trap Listing. The address that reflects the current program counter when a trap was taken is stored to mepc CSR. Additional information regarding the cause of the trap can be retrieved from the mtval and mtinst CSRs.

The traps are prioritized. If several exceptions occur at once only the one with highest priority is triggered while all remaining exceptions are ignored and discarded. If several interrupts trigger at once, the one with highest priority is serviced first while the remaining ones stay pending. After completing the interrupt handler the interrupt with the second highest priority will get serviced and so on until no further interrupts are pending.

Interrupts when in User-Mode
If the core is currently operating in less privileged user-mode, interrupts are globally enabled even if mstatus.mie is cleared.
Interrupt Signal Requirements - Standard RISC-V Interrupts
All interrupt request signals are high-active. Once triggered, a interrupt request line should stay high until it is explicitly acknowledged by a source-specific mechanism (for example by writing to a specific memory-mapped register).
Instruction Atomicity and Forward-Progress
All instructions execute as atomic operations - interrupts can only trigger between consecutive instructions. Additionally, if there is a permanent interrupt request, exactly one instruction from the interrupted program will be executed before another interrupt handler can start. This allows program progress even if there are permanent interrupt requests.

3.9.1. Memory Access Exceptions

If a load operation causes any exception, the instruction’s destination register is not written at all. Furthermore, exceptions caused by a misaligned memory address a physical memory protection fault do not trigger a memory access request at all.

For 32-bit-only instructions (= no C extension) the misaligned instruction exception is raised if bit 1 of the fetch address is set (i.e. not on a 32-bit boundary). If the C extension is implemented there will never be a misaligned instruction exception at all.

3.9.2. Custom Fast Interrupt Request Lines

As a custom extension, the NEORV32 CPU features 16 fast interrupt request (FIRQ) lines via the firq_i CPU top entity signals. These interrupts have custom configuration and status flags in the mie and mip CSRs and also provide custom trap codes in mcause. These FIRQs are reserved for NEORV32 processor-internal usage only.

3.9.3. NEORV32 Trap Listing

The following tables show all traps that are currently supported by the NEORV32 CPU. It also shows the prioritization and the CSR side-effects.

Table Annotations

The "Prio." column shows the priority of each trap with the highest priority being 1. The "RTE Trap ID" aliases are defined by the NEORV32 core library (the runtime environment RTE) and can be used in plain C code when interacting with the pre-defined RTE function. The mcause, mepc, mtval and mtinst columns show the value being written to the according CSRs when a trap is triggered:

  • I-PC - address of intercepted instruction (instruction has not been executed yet)

  • PC - address of instruction that caused the trap (instruction has been executed)

  • ADR - bad data memory access address that caused the trap

  • INS - the transformed/decompressed instruction word that caused the trap

  • 0 - zero

Table 85. NEORV32 Trap Listing
Prio. mcause RTE Trap ID Cause mepc mtval mtinst

Exceptions (synchronous to instruction execution)

1

0x00000001

TRAP_CODE_I_ACCESS

instruction access fault

I-PC

0

INS

2

0x00000002

TRAP_CODE_I_ILLEGAL

illegal instruction

PC

0

INS

3

0x00000000

TRAP_CODE_I_MISALIGNED

instruction address misaligned

PC

0

INS

4

0x0000000b

TRAP_CODE_MENV_CALL

environment call from M-mode

PC

0

INS

5

0x00000008

TRAP_CODE_UENV_CALL

environment call from U-mode

PC

0

INS

6

0x00000003

TRAP_CODE_BREAKPOINT

software breakpoint / trigger firing

PC

0

INS

7

0x00000006

TRAP_CODE_S_MISALIGNED

store address misaligned

PC

ADR

INS

8

0x00000004

TRAP_CODE_L_MISALIGNED

load address misaligned

PC

ADR

INS

9

0x00000007

TRAP_CODE_S_ACCESS

store access fault

PC

ADR

INS

10

0x00000005

TRAP_CODE_L_ACCESS

load access fault

PC

ADR

INS

Interrupts (asynchronous to instruction execution)

11

0x80000010

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_0

fast interrupt request channel 0

I-PC

0

0

12

0x80000011

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_1

fast interrupt request channel 1

I-PC

0

0

13

0x80000012

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_2

fast interrupt request channel 2

I-PC

0

0

14

0x80000013

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_3

fast interrupt request channel 3

I-PC

0

0

15

0x80000014

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_4

fast interrupt request channel 4

I-PC

0

0

16

0x80000015

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_5

fast interrupt request channel 5

I-PC

0

0

17

0x80000016

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_6

fast interrupt request channel 6

I-PC

0

0

18

0x80000017

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_7

fast interrupt request channel 7

I-PC

0

0

19

0x80000018

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_8

fast interrupt request channel 8

I-PC

0

0

20

0x80000019

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_9

fast interrupt request channel 9

I-PC

0

0

21

0x8000001a

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_10

fast interrupt request channel 10

I-PC

0

0

22

0x8000001b

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_11

fast interrupt request channel 11

I-PC

0

0

23

0x8000001c

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_12

fast interrupt request channel 12

I-PC

0

0

24

0x8000001d

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_13

fast interrupt request channel 13

I-PC

0

0

25

0x8000001e

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_14

fast interrupt request channel 14

I-PC

0

0

26

0x8000001f

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_15

fast interrupt request channel 15

I-PC

0

0

27

0x8000000b

TRAP_CODE_MEI

machine external interrupt (MEI)

I-PC

0

0

28

0x80000003

TRAP_CODE_MSI

machine software interrupt (MSI)

I-PC

0

0

29

0x80000007

TRAP_CODE_MTI

machine timer interrupt (MTI)

I-PC

0

0

Table 86. NEORV32 Trap Description
Trap ID [C] Triggered when …​

TRAP_CODE_I_ACCESS

bus timeout, bus access error or PMP rule violation during instruction fetch

TRAP_CODE_I_ILLEGAL

trying to execute an invalid instruction word (malformed or not supported) or on a privilege violation

TRAP_CODE_I_MISALIGNED

fetching a 32-bit instruction word that is not 32-bit-aligned (see note below)

TRAP_CODE_MENV_CALL

executing ecall instruction in machine-mode

TRAP_CODE_UENV_CALL

executing ecall instruction in user-mode

TRAP_CODE_BREAKPOINT

executing ebreak instruction or if Trigger Module fires

TRAP_CODE_S_MISALIGNED

storing data to an address that is not naturally aligned to the data size (half/word)

TRAP_CODE_L_MISALIGNED

loading data from an address that is not naturally aligned to the data size (half/word)

TRAP_CODE_L_ACCESS

bus timeout, bus access error or PMP rule violation during load data operation

TRAP_CODE_S_ACCESS

bus timeout, bus access error or PMP rule violation during store data operation

TRAP_CODE_FIRQ_*

caused by interrupt-condition of processor-internal modules, see NEORV32-Specific Fast Interrupt Requests

TRAP_CODE_MEI

machine external interrupt (via dedicated Processor Top Entity - Signals)

TRAP_CODE_MSI

machine software interrupt (via dedicated Processor Top Entity - Signals)

TRAP_CODE_MTI

machine timer interrupt (internal Machine System Timer (MTIME) or via dedicated Processor Top Entity - Signals)

Resumable Exceptions
Note that not all exceptions are resumable. For example, the "instruction access fault" exception or the "instruction address misaligned" exception are not resumable in most cases. These exception might indicate a fatal memory hardware failure.

4. Software Framework

The NEORV32 project comes with a complete software ecosystem called the "software framework" which is based on the C-language RISC-V GCC port and consists of the following parts:

Software Documentation
All core libraries and example programs are documented "in-code" using Doxygen. The documentation is automatically built and deployed to GitHub pages and is available online at https://stnolting.github.io/neorv32/sw/files.html.
Example Programs
A collection of annotated example programs illustrating how to use certain CPU functions and peripheral/IO modules can be found in sw/example.

4.1. Compiler Toolchain

The toolchain for this project is based on the free and open RISC-V GCC-port. You can find the compiler sources and build instructions in the official RISC-V GNU toolchain GitHub repository: https://github.com/riscv/riscv-gnutoolchain.

Toolchain Installation
More information regarding the toolchain (building from scratch or downloading prebuilt ones) can be found in the user guide section Software Toolchain Setup.

4.2. Core Libraries

The NEORV32 project provides a set of pre-defined C libraries that allow an easy integration of the processor/CPU features (also called "HAL" - hardware abstraction layer). All driver and runtime-related files are located in sw/lib. These library files are automatically included and linked by adding the following include statement:

#include <neorv32.h> // NEORV32 HAL, core and runtime libraries

The NEORV32 HAL consists of the following files.

Table 87. NEORV32 Hardware Abstraction Layer File List
C source file C header file Description

-

neorv32.h

Main NEORV32 library file

neorv32_aux.c

neorv32_aux.h

General auxiliary/helper function

neorv32_cfs.c

neorv32_cfs.h

Custom Functions Subsystem (CFS) HAL

neorv32_crc.c

neorv32_crc.h

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) HAL

neorv32_cpu.c

neorv32_cpu.h

NEORV32 Central Processing Unit (CPU) HAL

neorv32_cpu_amo.c

neorv32_cpu_amo.h

Emulation functions for the read-modify-write Zalrsc ISA Extension / A instructions

neorv32_cpu_csr.h

Control and Status Registers (CSRs) definitions

neorv32_cpu_cfu.c

neorv32_cpu_cfu.h

Custom Functions Unit (CFU) HAL

neorv32_dma.c

neorv32_dma.h

Direct Memory Access Controller (DMA) HAL

neorv32_gpio.c

neorv32_gpio.h

General Purpose Input and Output Port (GPIO) HAL

neorv32_gptmr.c

neorv32_gptmr.h

General Purpose Timer (GPTMR) HAL

-

neorv32_intrinsics.h

Macros for intrinsics and custom instructions

-

neorv32_legacy.h

Legacy compatibility layer / wrappers (do not use for new designs)

neorv32_mtime.c

neorv32_mtime.h

Machine System Timer (MTIME) HAL

neorv32_neoled.c

neorv32_neoled.h

Smart LED Interface (NEOLED) HAL

neorv32_onewire.c

neorv32_onewire.h

One-Wire Serial Interface Controller (ONEWIRE) HAL

neorv32_pwm.c

neorv32_pwm.h

Pulse-Width Modulation Controller (PWM) HAL

neorv32_rte.c

neorv32_rte.h

NEORV32 Runtime Environment

neorv32_sdi.c

neorv32_sdi.h

Serial Data Interface Controller (SDI) HAL

neorv32_slink.c

neorv32_slink.h

Stream Link Interface (SLINK) HAL

neorv32_spi.c

neorv32_spi.h

Serial Peripheral Interface Controller (SPI) HAL

neorv32_sysinfo.c

neorv32_sysinfo.h

System Configuration Information Memory (SYSINFO) HAL

neorv32_trng.c

neorv32_trng.h

True Random-Number Generator (TRNG) HAL

neorv32_twi.c

neorv32_twi.h

Two-Wire Serial Interface Controller (TWI) HAL

neorv32_uart.c

neorv32_uart.h

Primary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART0) and UART1 HAL

neorv32_wdt.c

neorv32_wdt.h

Watchdog Timer (WDT) HAL

neorv32_xip.c

neorv32_xip.h

Execute In Place Module (XIP) HAL

neorv32_xirq.c

neorv32_xirq.h

External Interrupt Controller (XIRQ) HAL

neorv32_newlib.c

-

Platform-specific system calls for newlib

Core Library Documentation
The Doxygen-based documentation of the software framework including all core libraries is available online at https://stnolting.github.io/neorv32/sw/files.html.

4.3. System View Description File (SVD)

A CMSIS-SVD-compatible System View Description (SVD) file including all peripherals is available in sw/svd.

4.4. Application Makefile

Application compilation is based on a centralized GNU makefile (sw/common/common.mk). Each software project (for example the ones in sw/example folder) should provide a local makefile that just includes the central makefile:

# Set path to NEORV32 root directory
NEORV32_HOME ?= ../../..
# Include the main NEORV32 makefile
include $(NEORV32_HOME)/sw/common/common.mk

Thus, the functionality of the central makefile (including all targets) becomes available for the project. The project-local makefile should be used to define all setup-relevant configuration options instead of changing the central makefile to keep the code base clean. Setting variables in the project-local makefile will override the default configuration. Most example projects already provide a makefile that list all relevant configuration options.

The following example shows all relevant configuration variables:

# Override the default CPU ISA
MARCH = rv32imc_zicsr_zifencei

# Override the default RISC-V GCC prefix
RISCV_PREFIX ?= riscv-none-elf-

# Override default optimization goal
EFFORT = -Os

# Add extended debug symbols
USER_FLAGS += -ggdb -gdwarf-3

# Additional sources
APP_SRC += $(wildcard ./*.c)
APP_INC += -I .

# Adjust processor IMEM size
USER_FLAGS += -Wl,--defsym,__neorv32_rom_size=16k

# Adjust processor DMEM size
USER_FLAGS += -Wl,--defsym,__neorv32_ram_size=8k

# Adjust maximum heap size
USER_FLAGS += -Wl,--defsym,__neorv32_heap_size=1k

# Additional compiler flags (append to this variable)
#USER_FLAGS += ...

# Set path to NEORV32 root directory
NEORV32_HOME ?= ../../..

# Include the main NEORV32 makefile
include $(NEORV32_HOME)/sw/common/common.mk
New Project
When creating a new project, copy an existing project folder or at least the makefile to the new project folder. It is recommended to create new projects also in sw/example to keep the file dependencies. However, these dependencies can be manually configured via makefile variables if the new project is located somewhere else.

4.4.1. Makefile Targets

Invoking a project-local makefile (executing make or make help) will show the help menu that lists all available targets as well as all variable including their current setting.

neorv32/sw/example/hello_world$ make
NEORV32 Software Makefile
Find more information at https://github.com/stnolting/neorv32

Targets:

  help         - show this text
  check        - check toolchain
  info         - show makefile/toolchain configuration
  gdb          - start GNU debugging session
  asm          - compile and generate <main.asm> assembly listing file for manual debugging
  elf          - compile and generate <main.elf> ELF file
  exe          - compile and generate <neorv32_exe.bin> executable image file for bootloader upload (includes a HEADER!)
  bin          - compile and generate <neorv32_raw_exe.bin> executable memory image
  hex          - compile and generate <neorv32_raw_exe.hex> executable memory image
  coe          - compile and generate <neorv32_raw_exe.coe> executable memory image
  mem          - compile and generate <neorv32_raw_exe.mem> executable memory image
  mif          - compile and generate <neorv32_raw_exe.mif> executable memory image
  image        - compile and generate VHDL IMEM application boot image <neorv32_application_image.vhd> in local folder
  install      - compile, generate and install VHDL IMEM application boot image <neorv32_application_image.vhd>
  sim          - in-console simulation using default/simple testbench and GHDL
  hdl_lists    - regenerate HDL file-lists (*.f) in NEORV32_HOME/rtl
  all          - exe + install + hex + bin + asm
  elf_info     - show ELF layout info
  elf_sections - show ELF sections
  clean        - clean up project home folder
  clean_all    - clean up whole project, core libraries and image generator
  bl_image     - compile and generate VHDL BOOTROM bootloader boot image <neorv32_bootloader_image.vhd> in local folder
  bootloader   - compile, generate and install VHDL BOOTROM bootloader boot image <neorv32_bootloader_image.vhd>

Variables:

  USER_FLAGS     - Custom toolchain flags [append only]: "-ggdb -gdwarf-3 -Wl,--defsym,__neorv32_rom_size=16k -Wl,--defsym,__neorv32_ram_size=8k"
  USER_LIBS      - Custom libraries [append only]: ""
  EFFORT         - Optimization level: "-Os"
  MARCH          - Machine architecture: "rv32i_zicsr_zifencei"
  MABI           - Machine binary interface: "ilp32"
  APP_INC        - C include folder(s) [append only]: "-I ."
  APP_SRC        - C source folder(s) [append only]: "./main.c   "
  ASM_INC        - ASM include folder(s) [append only]: "-I ."
  RISCV_PREFIX   - Toolchain prefix: "riscv32-unknown-elf-"
  NEORV32_HOME   - NEORV32 home folder: "../../.."
  GDB_ARGS       - GDB (connection) arguments: "-ex target extended-remote localhost:3333"
  GHDL_RUN_FLAGS - GHDL simulation run arguments: ""

4.4.2. Default Compiler Flags

The central makefile uses specific compiler flags to tune the code to the NEORV32 hardware. Hence, these flags should not be altered. However, experienced users can modify them to further tune compilation.

Table 88. Compiler Options (CC_OPTS)

-Wall

Enable all compiler warnings.

-ffunction-sections

Put functions in independent sections. This allows a code optimization as dead code can be easily removed.

-fdata-sections

Put data segment in independent sections. This allows a code optimization as unused data can be easily removed.

-nostartfiles

Do not use the default start code. Instead, the NEORV32-specific start-up code (sw/common/crt0.S) is used (pulled-in by the linker script).

-mno-fdiv

Use built-in software functions for floating-point divisions and square roots (since the according instructions are not supported yet).

-mstrict-align

Unaligned memory accesses cannot be resolved by the hardware and require emulation.

-mbranch-cost=10

Branching costs a lot of cycles.

-Wl,--gc-sections

Make the linker perform dead code elimination.

-ffp-contract=off

Disable floating-point expression contraction.

-g

Add (simple) debug information.

Checking Compiler Flags from a Compiled Program
The makefile’s CC_OPTS is exported as define to be available within a C program; for example neorv32_uart0_printf("%s\n", CC_OPTS);.
Table 89. Linker Libraries (LD_LIBS)

-lm

Include/link with math.h.

-lc

Search for the standard C library when linking.

-lgcc

Make sure we have no unresolved references to internal GCC library subroutines.

Advanced Debug Symbols
By default, only "simple" symbols are added to the ELF (-g). Extended debug flags (e.g. for Eclipse) can be added using the USER_FLAGS variable (e.g. USER_FLAGS += -ggdb -gdwarf-3). Note that other debug flags may be required depending of the GCC/GDB version

4.5. Linker Script

The NEORV32-specific linker script (sw/common/neorv32.ld) is used to link the compiled sources according to the processor’s Address Space). For the final executable, only two memory segments are required:

Table 90. Linker script - Memory Segments
Memory section Description

rom

Instruction memory address space (processor-internal Instruction Memory (IMEM) and/or external memory)

ram

Data memory address space (processor-internal Data Memory (DMEM) and/or external memory)

These two sections are configured by several variables defined in the linker script and exposed to the build framework (aka the makefile). Those variable allow to customized the RAM/ROM sizes and base addresses. Additionally, a certain amount of the RAM can be reserved for the software-managed heap (see RAM Layout).

Table 91. Linker script - Configuration
Memory section Description Default

__neorv32_rom_size

"ROM" size (instruction memory / IMEM)

16kB

__neorv32_ram_size

"RAM" size (data memory / DMEM)

8kB

__neorv32_rom_base

"ROM" base address (instruction memory / IMEM)

0x00000000

__neorv32_ram_base

"RAM" base address (data memory / DMEM)

0x80000000

__neorv32_heap_size

Maximum heap size; part of the "RAM"

0kB

Each variable provides a default value (e.g. "16K" for the instruction memory /ROM /IMEM size). These defaults can be overridden by setup-specific values to take the user-defined processor configuration into account (e.g. a different IMEM size). The USER_FLAGS variable provided by the Application Makefile can also be used to customize the memory configuration. For example, the following line can be added to a project-specific local makefile to adjust the memory sizes:

Listing 14. Overriding Default Memory Sizes (configuring 64kB IMEM and 32kB DMEM)
USER_FLAGS += "-Wl,--defsym,__neorv32_rom_size=64k -Wl,--defsym,__neorv32_ram_size=32k"
Memory Configuration Constraints
Memory sizes have to be a multiple of 4 bytes. Memory base addresses have to be 32-bit-aligned.

4.5.1. RAM Layout

The default NEORV32 linker script uses the defined RAM size to map several sections. Note that depending on the application some sections might have zero size.

400
Figure 12. Default RAM Layout
  1. Constant data (.data): The constant data section is placed right at the beginning of the RAM. For example, this section contains explicitly initialized global variables. This section is initialized by the Start-Up Code (crt0).

  2. Dynamic data (.bss): The constant data section is followed by the dynamic data section that contains uninitialized data like global variables without explicit initialization. This section is cleared by the Start-Up Code (crt0).

  3. Heap (.heap): The heap is used for dynamic memory that is managed by functions like malloc() and free(). The heap grows upwards. This section is not initialized at all.

  4. Stack: The stack starts at the end of the RAM at the last 16-byte aligned address. According to the RISC-V ABI / calling convention the stack is 128-bit-aligned before procedure entry. The stack grows downwards.

Heap Size
The maximum size of the heap is defined by the __neorv32_heap_size variable. This variable has to be explicitly defined in order to define a heap size (and to use dynamic memory allocation at all) other than zero.
Heap-Stack Collision
Take care when using dynamic memory to avoid collision of the heap and stack memory areas. There is no compile-time protection mechanism available as the actual heap and stack size are defined by runtime data.

4.6. C Standard Library

The default software framework relies on newlib as default C standard library. Newlib provides hooks for common "system calls" (like file handling and standard input/output) that are used by other C libraries like stdio. These hooks are available in sw/lib/source/newlib.c and were adapted for the NEORV32 processor.

Standard Consoles
The UART0 is used to implement all the standard input, output and error consoles (STDIN, STDOUT and STDERR). Note that \n (newline) is automatically converted to \r\n (carriage-return and newline).
Constructors and Destructors
Constructors and destructors for plain C code or for C++ applications are supported by the software framework. See sw/example/hello_cpp for a minimal example.
Newlib Test/Demo Program
A simple test and demo program that uses some of newlib’s system functions (like malloc/free and read/write) is available in sw/example/demo_newlib.

4.7. Start-Up Code (crt0)

The CPU and also the processor require a minimal start-up and initialization code to bring the hardware into an operational state. Furthermore, the C runtime requires an initialization before compiled code can be executed. This setup is done by the start-up code (sw/common/crt0.S) which is automatically linked with every application program and gets mapped before the actual application code so it gets executed right after boot.

The crt0.S start-up performs the following operations:

  1. Clear mstatus CSR.

  2. Clear mie CSR disabling all interrupt sources.

  3. Install an Early Trap Handler to mtvec CSR.

  4. Initialize the global pointer gp and the stack pointer sp according to the RAM Layout provided by the linker script.

  5. Initialize all integer register x1 - x31 (only x1 - x15 if the E CPU extension is enabled).

  6. Setup .data section to configure initialized variables.

  7. Clear the .bss section.

  8. Call all constructors (if there are any).

  9. Call the application’s main() function (with no arguments; argc = argv = 0).

  10. If main() returns:

    • All interrupt sources are disabled by clearing mie CSR.

    • The return value of main() is copied to the mscratch CSR to allow inspection by the debugger.

    • Call all destructors (if there are any).

    • Re-install an Early Trap Handler to mtvec CSR. If any destructor causes an exception the Early Trap Handler is used for handling.

    • The CPU enters sleep mode executing the wfi instruction in an endless loop.

4.7.1. Early Trap Handler

The start-up code provides a very basic trap handler for the early boot phase. This handler does nothing but trying to move on to the next linear instruction whenever an interrupt or synchronous exception is encountered. This simple trap handler does not interact with the stack at all as it just uses a single register that is backup-ed using the mscratch CSR.

4.8. Executable Image Formats

The compiled and linked executable (ELF file) is further processed by the NEORV32 image generator (sw/image_gen) to generate the final executable file. The image generator can generate several types of executable file formats selected by a flag when calling the generator. Note that all these options are managed by the makefile (see Makefile Targets).

-app_bin

Generates an executable binary file (including a bootloader header) for upload via the bootloader.

-app_vhd

Generates an executable VHDL memory initialization image for the processor-internal IMEM.

-bld_vhd

Generates an executable VHDL memory initialization image for the processor-internal BOOT ROM.

-raw_hex

Generates a raw 8x ASCII hex-char file for custom purpose.

-raw_bin

Generates a raw binary file `for custom purpose.

-raw_coe

Generates a raw COE file for FPGA memory initialization.

-raw_mem

Generates a raw MEM file for FPGA memory initialization.

-raw_mif

Generates a raw MIF file for FPGA memory initialization.

Image Generator Compilation
The sources of the image generator are automatically compiled when invoking the makefile (requiring a native GCC installation).
Executable Header
for the app_bin option the image generator adds a small header to the executable. This header is required by the Bootloader to identify and manage the executable. The header consists of three 32-bit words located right at the beginning of the file. The first word of the executable is the signature word and is always 0x4788cafe. Based on this word the bootloader can identify a valid image file. The next word represents the size in bytes of the actual program image in bytes. A simple complement checksum of the actual program image is given by the third word. This provides a simple protection against data transmission or storage errors. Note that this executable format cannot be used for direct execution (e.g. via XIP or direct memory access).

4.9. Bootloader

Pre-Built Bootloader Image
This section refers to the default NEORV32 bootloader. A pre-compiled memory image for the processor-internal Bootloader ROM (BOOTROM) is available in the project’s rtl folder: rtl/core/neorv32_bootloader_image.vhd. This image is automatically inserted into the boot ROM when synthesizing the processor with the bootloader being enabled. Note that the default bootloader image was compiled for a minimal rv32i + priv. ISA!

The NEORV32 bootloader (sw/bootloader/bootloader.c) provides an optional built-in firmware that allows to upload new application executables at any time without the need to re-synthesize the FPGA’s bitstream. A UART connection is used to provide a simple text-based user interface that allows to upload executables.

Furthermore, the bootloader provides options to store an executable to a processor-external SPI flash. An "auto boot" feature can optionally fetch this executable right after reset if there is no user interaction via UART. This allows to build processor setups with non-volatile application storage while maintaining the option to update the application software at any timer.

4.9.1. Bootloader SoC/CPU Requirements

The bootloader requires certain CPU and SoC extensions and modules to be enabled in order to operate correctly.

REQUIRED

The Boot Configuration (BOOT_MODE_SELECT generic) has to be set to "bootloader" mode.

REQUIRED

The bootloader requires the privileged architecture CPU extension (Zicsr ISA Extension) to be enabled.

REQUIRED

At least 512 bytes of data memory (processor-internal DMEM or processor-external DMEM) are required for the bootloader’s stack and global variables.

RECOMMENDED

For user interaction via the Bootloader Console (like uploading executables) the primary UART (Primary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART0)) is required.

RECOMMENDED

The default bootloader uses bit 0 of the General Purpose Input and Output Port (GPIO) output port to drive a high-active "heart beat" status LED.

RECOMMENDED

The Machine System Timer (MTIME) is used to control blinking of the status LED and also to automatically trigger the Auto Boot Sequence.

OPTIONAL

The SPI controller (Serial Peripheral Interface Controller (SPI)) is needed to store/load executable from external flash using the Auto Boot Sequence.

OPTIONAL

The XIP controller (Execute In Place Module (XIP)) is needed to boot/execute code directly from a pre-programmed SPI flash.

4.9.2. Bootloader Flash Requirements

The bootloader can access an SPI-compatible flash via the processor’s top entity SPI port. By default, the flash chip-select line is driven by spi_csn_o(0) and the SPI clock uses 1/8 of the processor’s main clock as clock frequency. The SPI flash has to support single-byte read and write operations, 24-bit addresses and at least the following standard commands:

  • 0x02: Program page (write byte)

  • 0x03: Read data (byte)

  • 0x04: Write disable (for volatile status register)

  • 0x05: Read (first) status register

  • 0x06: Write enable (for volatile status register)

  • 0xAB: Wake-up from sleep mode (optional)

  • 0xD8: Block erase (64kB)

Custom Configuration
Most properties (like chip select line, flash address width, SPI clock frequency, …​) of the default bootloader can be reconfigured without the need to change the source code. Custom configuration can be made using command line switches (defines) when recompiling the bootloader. See the User Guide https://stnolting.github.io/neorv32/ug/#_customizing_the_internal_bootloader for more information.

4.9.3. Bootloader Console

To interact with the bootloader, connect the primary UART (UART0) signals (uart0_txd_o and uart0_rxd_o) of the processor’s top entity via a serial port (-adapter) to your computer (hardware flow control is not used so the according interface signals can be ignored), configure your terminal program using the following settings and perform a reset of the processor.

Terminal console settings (19200-8-N-1):

  • 19200 Baud

  • 8 data bits

  • no parity bit

  • 1 stop bit

  • newline on \r\n (carriage return, newline)

  • no transfer protocol / control flow protocol - just raw bytes

Terminal Program
Any terminal program that can connect to a serial port should work. However, make sure the program can transfer data in raw byte mode without any protocol overhead (e.g. XMODEM). Some terminal programs struggle with transmitting files larger than 4kB (see https://github.com/stnolting/neorv32/pull/215). Try a different terminal program if uploading of a binary does not work.

The bootloader uses the LSB of the top entity’s gpio_o output port as high-active status LED. All other output pins are set to low level and won’t be altered. After reset, the status LED will start blinking at 2Hz and the following intro screen shows up:

<< NEORV32 Bootloader >>

BLDV: Mar  7 2023
HWV:  0x01080107
CLK:  0x05f5e100
MISA: 0x40901106
XISA: 0xc0000fab
SOC:  0xffff402f
IMEM: 0x00008000
DMEM: 0x00002000

Autoboot in 10s. Press any key to abort.

The start-up screen gives some brief information about the bootloader and several system configuration parameters:

BLDV

Bootloader version (built date).

HWV

Processor hardware version (the mimpid CSR); in BCD format; example: 0x01040606 = v1.4.6.6).

CLK

Processor clock speed in Hz (via the CLK register from the System Configuration Information Memory (SYSINFO).

MISA

RISC-V CPU extensions (misa CSR).

XISA

NEORV32-specific CPU extensions (mxisa CSR).

SOC

Processor configuration (via the SOC register from the System Configuration Information Memory (SYSINFO).

IMEM

Internal IMEM size in byte (via the MEM register from the System Configuration Information Memory (SYSINFO).

DMEM

Internal DMEM size in byte (via the MEM register from the System Configuration Information Memory (SYSINFO).

Now you have 10 seconds to press any key. Otherwise, the bootloader starts the Auto Boot Sequence. When you press any key within the 10 seconds, the actual bootloader user console starts:

<< NEORV32 Bootloader >>

BLDV: Mar  7 2023
HWV:  0x01080107
CLK:  0x05f5e100
MISA: 0x40901106
XISA: 0xc0000fab
SOC:  0xffff402f
IMEM: 0x00008000
DMEM: 0x00002000

Autoboot in 10s. Press any key to abort. (1)
Aborted.

Available CMDs:
 h: Help
 r: Restart
 u: Upload
 s: Store to flash
 l: Load from flash
 x: Boot from flash (XIP)
 e: Execute
CMD:>
1 Auto boot sequence aborted due to user console input.

The auto boot countdown is stopped and the bootloader’s user console is ready to receive one of the following commands:

  • h: Show the help text (again)

  • r: Restart the bootloader and the auto-boot sequence

  • u: Upload new program executable (neorv32_exe.bin) via UART into the instruction memory

  • s: Store executable to SPI flash at spi_csn_o(0) (little-endian byte order)

  • l: Load executable from SPI flash at spi_csn_o(0) (little-endian byte order)

  • x: Boot program directly from flash via XIP (requires a pre-programmed image)

  • e: Start the application, which is currently stored in the instruction memory (IMEM)

A new executable can be uploaded via UART by executing the u command. After that, the executable can be directly executed via the e command. To store the recently uploaded executable to an attached SPI flash press s. To directly load an executable from the SPI flash press l. The bootloader and the auto-boot sequence can be manually restarted via the r command.

Executable Upload
Make sure to upload the NEORV32 executable neorv32_exe.bin. Uploading any other file (like main.bin) will cause an ERR_EXE bootloader error (see Bootloader Error Codes).
Booting via XIP
The bootloader allows to execute an application right from flash using the Execute In Place Module (XIP) module. This requires a pre-programmed flash. The bootloader’s "store" option can not be used to program an XIP image.
SPI Flash Power Down Mode
The bootloader will issue a "wake-up" command prior to using the SPI flash to ensure it is not in sleep mode / power-down mode (see https://github.com/stnolting/neorv32/pull/552).
Default Configuration
More information regarding the default SPI, GPIO, XIP, etc. configuration can be found in the User Guide section https://stnolting.github.io/neorv32/ug/#_customizing_the_internal_bootloader.
SPI Flash Programming
For detailed information on using an SPI flash for application storage see User Guide section Programming an External SPI Flash via the Bootloader.

4.9.4. Auto Boot Sequence

When you reset the NEORV32 processor, the bootloader waits 8 seconds for a UART console input before it starts the automatic boot sequence. This sequence tries to fetch a valid boot image from the external SPI flash, connected to SPI chip select spi_csn_o(0). If a valid boot image is found that can be successfully transferred into the instruction memory, it is automatically started. If no SPI flash is detected or if there is no valid boot image found, and error code will be shown.

4.9.5. Bootloader Error Codes

If something goes wrong during bootloader operation an error code and a short message is shown. In this case the processor is halted (entering Sleep Mode), the bootloader status LED is permanently activated and the processor has to be reset manually.

In many cases the error source is just temporary (like some HF spike during an UART upload). Just try again.

ERR_EXE

If you try to transfer an invalid executable (via UART or from the external SPI flash), this error message shows up. There might be a transfer protocol configuration error in the terminal program or maybe just the wrong file was selected. Also, if no SPI flash was found during an auto-boot attempt, this message will be displayed.

ERR_SIZE

Your program is way too big for the internal processor’s instructions memory. Increase the memory size or reduce your application code.

ERR_CHKS

This indicates a checksum error. Something went wrong during the transfer of the program image (upload via UART or loading from the external SPI flash). If the error was caused by a UART upload, just try it again. When the error was generated during a flash access, the stored image might be corrupted.

ERR_FLSH

This error occurs if the attached SPI flash cannot be accessed. Make sure you have the right type of flash and that it is properly connected to the NEORV32 SPI port using chip select #0.

ERR_EXC

The bootloader encountered an unexpected exception during operation. This might be caused when it tries to access peripherals that were not implemented during synthesis. Example: executing commands l or s (SPI flash operations) without the SPI module being implemented.

If an unexpected exception has been raised, the bootloader prints hexadecimal debug information showing the mcause, mepc and mtval CSR values.

4.10. NEORV32 Runtime Environment

The NEORV32 software framework provides a minimal runtime environment (abbreviated "RTE") that takes care of a stable and safe execution environment by handling all traps (exceptions & interrupts). The RTE simplifies trap handling by wrapping the CPU’s privileged architecture (i.e. trap-related CSRs) into a unified software API.

Once initialized, the RTE provides Default RTE Trap Handlers that catch all possible traps. These default handlers just output a message via UART to inform the user when a certain trap has been triggered. The default handlers can be overridden by the application code to install application-specific handler functions for each trap.

Using the RTE is optional but highly recommended. The RTE provides a simple and comfortable way of delegating traps to application-specific handlers while making sure that all traps (even though they are not explicitly used by the application) are handled correctly. Performance-optimized applications or embedded operating systems may not use the RTE at all in order to increase response time.

4.10.1. RTE Operation

The RTE manages the trap-related CSRs of the CPU’s privileged architecture (Machine Trap Handling CSRs). It initializes the mtvec CSR in DIRECT mode, which then provides the base entry point for all traps. The address stored to this register defines the address of the first-level trap handler, which is provided by the NEORV32 RTE. Whenever an exception or interrupt is triggered this first-level trap handler is executed.

The first-level handler performs a complete context save, analyzes the source of the trap and calls the according second-level trap handler, which takes care of the actual exception/interrupt handling. The RTE manages a private look-up table to store the addresses of the according second-level trap handlers.

After the initial RTE setup, each entry in the RTE’s trap handler look-up table is initialized with a Default RTE Trap Handlers. These default handler do not execute any trap-related operations - they just output a message via the primary UART (UART0) to inform the user that a trap has occurred, which is not (yet) handled by the actual application. After sending this message, the RTE tries to continue executing the actual program by resolving the trap cause.

4.10.2. Using the RTE

All provided RTE functions can be called only from machine-mode code.

The NEORV32 is part of the default NEORV32 software framework. However, it has to explicitly enabled by calling the RTE’s setup function:

Listing 15. RTE Setup (Function Prototype)
void neorv32_rte_setup(void);
The RTE should be enabled right at the beginning of the application’s main function.
It is recommended to not use the mscratch CSR when using the RTE as this register is used to provide services for Application Context Handling (i.e. modifying the registers of application code that caused a trap).

As mentioned above, all traps will just trigger execution of the RTE’s Default RTE Trap Handlers at first. To use application-specific handlers, which actually "handle" a trap, the default handlers can be overridden by installing user-defined ones:

Listing 16. Installing an Application-Specific Trap Handler (Function Prototype)
int neorv32_rte_handler_install(uint8_t id, void (*handler)(void));

The first argument id defines the "trap ID" (for example a certain interrupt request) that shall be handled by the user-defined handler. These IDs are defined in sw/lib/include/neorv32_rte.h:

Listing 17. RTE Trap Identifiers (cut-out)
enum NEORV32_RTE_TRAP_enum {
  RTE_TRAP_I_MISALIGNED =  0, /**< Instruction address misaligned */
  RTE_TRAP_I_ACCESS     =  1, /**< Instruction (bus) access fault */
  RTE_TRAP_I_ILLEGAL    =  2, /**< Illegal instruction */
  RTE_TRAP_BREAKPOINT   =  3, /**< Breakpoint (EBREAK instruction) */
  RTE_TRAP_L_MISALIGNED =  4, /**< Load address misaligned */
  RTE_TRAP_L_ACCESS     =  5, /**< Load (bus) access fault */
  RTE_TRAP_S_MISALIGNED =  6, /**< Store address misaligned */
  RTE_TRAP_S_ACCESS     =  7, /**< Store (bus) access fault */
  RTE_TRAP_UENV_CALL    =  8, /**< Environment call from user mode (ECALL instruction) */
  RTE_TRAP_MENV_CALL    =  9, /**< Environment call from machine mode (ECALL instruction) */
  RTE_TRAP_MSI          = 10, /**< Machine software interrupt */
  RTE_TRAP_MTI          = 11, /**< Machine timer interrupt */
  RTE_TRAP_MEI          = 12, /**< Machine external interrupt */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_0       = 13, /**< Fast interrupt channel 0 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_1       = 14, /**< Fast interrupt channel 1 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_2       = 15, /**< Fast interrupt channel 2 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_3       = 16, /**< Fast interrupt channel 3 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_4       = 17, /**< Fast interrupt channel 4 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_5       = 18, /**< Fast interrupt channel 5 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_6       = 19, /**< Fast interrupt channel 6 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_7       = 20, /**< Fast interrupt channel 7 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_8       = 21, /**< Fast interrupt channel 8 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_9       = 22, /**< Fast interrupt channel 9 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_10      = 23, /**< Fast interrupt channel 10 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_11      = 24, /**< Fast interrupt channel 11 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_12      = 25, /**< Fast interrupt channel 12 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_13      = 26, /**< Fast interrupt channel 13 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_14      = 27, /**< Fast interrupt channel 14 */
  RTE_TRAP_FIRQ_15      = 28  /**< Fast interrupt channel 15 */

The second argument *handler is the actual function that implements the user-defined trap handler. The custom handler functions need to have a specific format without any arguments and with no return value:

Listing 18. Custom Trap Handler (Function Prototype)
void custom_trap_handler_xyz(void) {

  // handle trap...
}
Custom Trap Handler Attributes
Do NOT use the interrupt attribute for the application trap handler functions! This will place a mret instruction to the end of it making it impossible to return to the first-level trap handler of the RTE core, which will cause stack corruption.

The following example shows how to install a custom handler (custom_mtime_irq_handler) for handling the RISC-V machine timer (MTIME) interrupt:

Listing 19. Installing a MTIME IRQ Handler
neorv32_rte_handler_install(RTE_TRAP_MTI, custom_mtime_irq_handler);

User-defined trap handlers can also be un-installed. This will remove the users trap handler from the RTE core and will re-install the Default RTE Trap Handlers for the specific trap.

Listing 20. Function Prototype: Installing an Application-Specific Trap Handler
int neorv32_rte_handler_uninstall(uint8_t id);

The argument id defines the identifier of the according trap that shall be un-installed. The following example shows how to un-install the custom handler custom_mtime_irq_handler from the RISC-V machine timer (MTIME) interrupt:

Listing 21. Example: Removing the Custom MTIME IRQ Handler
neorv32_rte_handler_uninstall(RTE_TRAP_MTI);
The current RTE configuration can be printed via UART0 via the neorv32_rte_info function.

4.10.3. Default RTE Trap Handlers

The default RTE trap handlers are executed when a certain trap is triggered that is not (yet) handled by an application-defined trap handler. The default handler will output a message giving additional debug information via the Primary Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART0) to inform the user and it will also try to resume normal program execution. Some exemplary RTE outputs are shown below.

Continuing Execution
In most cases the RTE can successfully continue operation - for example if it catches an interrupt request that is not handled by the actual application program. However, if the RTE catches an un-handled trap like a bus access fault exception continuing execution will most likely fail making the CPU crash. Some exceptions cannot be resolved by the default debug trap handlers and will halt the CPU (see example below).
Listing 22. RTE Default Trap Handler Output Examples
<NEORV32-RTE> [M] Illegal instruction @ PC=0x000002d6, MTINST=0x000000FF, MTVAL=0x00000000 </NEORV32-RTE> (1)
<NEORV32-RTE> [U] Illegal instruction @ PC=0x00000302, MTINST=0x00000000, MTVAL=0x00000000 </NEORV32-RTE> (2)
<NEORV32-RTE> [U] Load address misaligned @ PC=0x00000440, MTINST=0x01052603, MTVAL=0x80000101 </NEORV32-RTE> (3)
<NEORV32-RTE> [M] Fast IRQ 0x00000003 @ PC=0x00000820, MTINST=0x00000000, MTVAL=0x00000000 </NEORV32-RTE> (4)
<NEORV32-RTE> [M] Instruction access fault @ PC=0x90000000, MTINST=0x42078b63, MTVAL=0x00000000 !!FATAL EXCEPTION!! Halting CPU. </NEORV32-RTE>\n (5)
1 Illegal 32-bit instruction MTINST=0x000000FF at address PC=0x000002d6 while the CPU was in machine-mode ([M]).
2 Illegal 16-bit instruction MTINST=0x00000000 at address PC=0x00000302 while the CPU was in user-mode ([U]).
3 Misaligned load access at address PC=0x00000440 caused by instruction MTINST=0x01052603 (trying to load a full 32-bit word from address MTVAL=0x80000101) while the CPU was in machine-mode ([U]).
4 Fast interrupt request from channel 3 before executing instruction at address PC=0x00000820 while the CPU was in machine-mode ([M]).
5 Instruction bus access fault at address PC=0x90000000 while executing instruction MTINST=0x42078b63 - this is fatal for the default debug trap handler while the CPU was in machine-mode ([M]).

The specific message right at the beginning of the debug trap handler message corresponds to the trap code obtained from the mcause CSR (see NEORV32 Trap Listing). A full list of all messages and the according mcause trap codes is shown below.

Table 92. RTE Default Trap Handler Messages and According mcause Values
Trap identifier According mcause CSR value

"Instruction address misaligned"

0x00000000

"Instruction access fault"

0x00000001

"Illegal instruction"

0x00000002

"Breakpoint"

0x00000003

"Load address misaligned"

0x00000004

"Load access fault"

0x00000005

"Store address misaligned"

0x00000006

"Store access fault"

0x00000007

"Environment call from U-mode"

0x00000008

"Environment call from M-mode"

0x0000000b

"Machine software IRQ"

0x80000003

"Machine timer IRQ"

0x80000007

"Machine external IRQ"

0x8000000b

"Fast IRQ 0x00000000"

0x80000010

"Fast IRQ 0x00000001"

0x80000011

"Fast IRQ 0x00000002"

0x80000012

"Fast IRQ 0x00000003"

0x80000013

"Fast IRQ 0x00000004"

0x80000014

"Fast IRQ 0x00000005"

0x80000015

"Fast IRQ 0x00000006"

0x80000016

"Fast IRQ 0x00000007"

0x80000017

"Fast IRQ 0x00000008"

0x80000018

"Fast IRQ 0x00000009"

0x80000019

"Fast IRQ 0x0000000a"

0x8000001a

"Fast IRQ 0x0000000b"

0x8000001b

"Fast IRQ 0x0000000c"

0x8000001c

"Fast IRQ 0x0000000d"

0x8000001d

"Fast IRQ 0x0000000e"

0x8000001e

"Fast IRQ 0x0000000f"

0x8000001f

"Unknown trap cause"

undefined

4.10.4. Application Context Handling

Upon trap entry the RTE backups the entire application context (i.e. all x general purpose registers) to the stack. The context is restored automatically after trap completion. The base address of the according stack frame is copied to the mscratch CSR. By having this information available, the RTE provides dedicated functions for accessing and altering the application context:

Listing 23. Context Access Functions
// Prototypes
uint32_t neorv32_rte_context_get(int x); // read register x
void     neorv32_rte_context_put(int x, uint32_t data); write data to register x

// Examples
uint32_t tmp = neorv32_rte_context_get(9); // read register 'x9'
neorv32_rte_context_put(28, tmp); // write 'tmp' to register 'x28'
RISC-V E Extension
Registers x16..x31 are not available if the RISC-V E ISA Extension is enabled.

The context access functions can be used by application-specific trap handlers to emulate unsupported CPU / SoC features like unimplemented IO modules, unsupported instructions and even unaligned memory accesses.

Demo Program: Emulate Unaligned Memory Access
A demo program, which showcases how to emulate unaligned memory accesses using the NEORV32 runtime environment can be found in sw/example/demo_emulate_unaligned.

5. On-Chip Debugger (OCD)

The NEORV32 Processor features an on-chip debugger (OCD) implementing the execution-based debugging scheme compatible to the Minimal RISC-V Debug Specification. A copy of the specification is available in docs/references. The on-chip debugger is implemented via the OCD_EN processor top generic.

Key Features

  • standard 4-wire JTAG access port

  • full control of the CPU: halting, single-stepping and resuming

  • indirect access to all core registers and the entire processor address space (via program buffer)

  • compatible with upstream OpenOCD and GDB

  • optional trigger module for hardware breakpoints

  • optional authentication for increased security

Hands-On Tutorial
A simple example on how to use NEORV32 on-chip debugger in combination with OpenOCD and the GNU debugger is shown in section Debugging using the On-Chip Debugger of the User Guide.

Section Structure

The NEORV32 on-chip debugger is based on five hardware modules:

neorv32 ocd complex
Figure 13. NEORV32 on-chip debugger complex
  1. Debug Transport Module (DTM): JTAG access tap to allow an external adapter to interface with the debug module (DM).

  2. Debug Module (DM): RISC-V debug module that is configured by the DTM. From the CPU’s perspective this module behaves as another memory-mapped peripheral that can be accessed via the processor-internal bus. The memory-mapped registers provide an internal data buffer for data transfer from/to the DM, a code ROM containing the "park loop" code, a program buffer to allow the debugger to execute small programs defined by the DM and a status register that is used to communicate exception, halt, resume and execute requests/acknowledges from/to the DM.

  3. Debug Authentication: Authenticator module to secure on-chip debugger access. This module implements a very simple authentication mechanism as example. Users can modify/replace this default logic to implement arbitrary authentication mechanism.

  4. CPU Debug Mode ISA extension: This ISA extension provides the "debug execution mode" as another operation mode that is used to execute the park loop code from the DM. This mode also provides additional CSRs and instructions.

  5. CPU Trigger Module: This module provides a single hardware breakpoint.

Theory of Operation

When debugging the system using the OCD, the debugger (like GDB) issues a halt request to the CPU to make the it enter debug mode. In this mode the application-defined architectural state of the system/CPU is "frozen" so the debugger can monitor it without interfering with the actual application. However, the OCD can also modify the entire architectural state at any time. While in debug mode, the debugger has full control over the entire CPU and processor operating at highest-privileged mode.

While in debug mode, the CPU executes the "park loop" code from the code ROM of the debug module (DM). This park loop implements an endless loop, where the CPU polls a memory-mapped Status Register that is controlled by the DM. The flags in this register are used to communicate requests from the DM and to acknowledge them by the CPU: trigger execution of the program buffer or resume the halted application. Furthermore, the CPU uses this register to signal that the CPU has halted after a halt request or to signal that an exception has been raised while being in debug mode.

5.1. Debug Transport Module (DTM)

The debug transport module "DTM" (VHDL module: rtl/core/neorv32_debug_dtm.vhd) provides a standard 4-wire JTAG test access port ("tap") via the following top-level ports:

Table 93. JTAG top level signals
Name Width Direction Description

jtag_tck_i

1

in

serial clock

jtag_tdi_i

1

in

serial data input

jtag_tdo_o

1

out

serial data output

jtag_tms_i

1

in

mode select

Maximum JTAG Clock
All JTAG signals are synchronized to the processor’s clock domain. Hence, no additional clock domain is required for the DTM. However, this constraints the maximal JTAG clock frequency (jtag_tck_i) to be less than or equal to 1/5 of the processor clock frequency (clk_i).
JTAG TAP Reset
The NEORV32 JTAG TAP does not provide a dedicated reset signal ("TRST"). However, the missing TRST is not a problem, since JTAG-level resets can be triggered using with TMS signaling.
Maintaining JTAG Chain
If the on-chip debugger is disabled the JTAG serial input jtag_tdi_i is directly connected to the JTAG serial output jtag_tdo_o to maintain the JTAG chain.

JTAG accesses are based on a single 5-bit instruction register IR and several data registers DR with different sizes. The individual data registers are accessed by writing the according address to the instruction register. The following table shows the available data registers and their addresses:

Table 94. JTAG TAP registers
Address (via IR) Name Size (bits) Description

00001

IDCODE

32

identifier, version and part ID fields are hardwired to zero, manufacturer ID is assigned via the JEDEC_ID generic

10000

DTMCS

32

debug transport module control and status register (see below)

10001

DMI

41

debug module interface: 7-bit address, 32-bit read/write data, 2-bit operation (00 = NOP; 10 = write; 01 = read)

others

BYPASS

1

default JTAG bypass register

Table 95. DTMCS - DTM Control and Status Register
Bit(s) Name R/W Description

31:18

-

r/-

reserved, hardwired to zero

17

dmihardreset

r/w

setting this bit will reset the debug module interface; this bit auto-clears

16

dmireset

r/w

setting this bit will clear the sticky error state; this bit auto-clears

15

-

r/-

reserved, hardwired to zero

14:12

idle

r/-

recommended idle states (= 0, no idle states required)

11:10

dmistat

r/-

DMI status: 00 = no error, 01 = reserved, 10 = operation failed, 11 = failed operation during pending DMI operation

9:4

abits

r/-

number of address bits in DMI register (= 6)

3:0

version

r/-

0001 = DTM is compatible to RISC-V debug spec. versions v0.13 and v1.0

5.2. Debug Module (DM)

The debug module "DM" (VHDL module: rtl/core/neorv32_debug_dm.vhd) acts as a translation interface between abstract operations issued by the debugger application (like GDB) and the platform-specific debugger hardware. It supports the following features:

  • Gives the debugger necessary information about the implementation.

  • Allows the hart to be halted/resumed/reset and provides the current status.

  • Provides abstract read and write access to the halted hart’s general purpose registers.

  • Provides access to a reset signal that allows debugging from the very first instruction after reset.

  • Provides a program buffer to force the hart to execute arbitrary instructions.

  • Allows memory access from a hart’s point of view.

  • Optionally implements an authentication mechanism to secure on-chip debugger access.

The NEORV32 DM follows the "Minimal RISC-V External Debug Specification" to provide full debugging capabilities while keeping resource/area requirements at a minimum. It implements the execution based debugging scheme for a single hart and provides the following architectural core features:

  • program buffer with 2 entries and an implicit ebreak instruction

  • indirect bus access via the CPU using the program buffer

  • abstract commands: "access register" plus auto-execution

  • halt-on-reset capability

  • optional authentication

DM Spec. Version
The NEORV32 DM complies to the RISC-V DM spec version 1.0.

From the DTM’s point of view, the DM implements a set of DM Registers that are used to control and monitor the debugging session. From the CPU’s point of view, the DM implements several memory-mapped registers that are used for communicating debugging control and status (DM CPU Access).

5.2.1. DM Registers

The DM is controlled via a set of registers that are accessed via the DTM. The following registers are implemented:

Unimplemented Registers
Write accesses to registers that are not implemented are simply ignored and read accesses to these registers will always return zero.
Table 96. Available DM registers
Address Name Description

0x04

data0

Abstract data 0, used for data transfer between debugger and processor

0x10

dmcontrol

Debug module control

0x11

dmstatus

Debug module status

0x12

hartinfo

Hart information

0x16

abstracts

Abstract control and status

0x17

command

Abstract command

0x18

abstractauto

Abstract command auto-execution

0x1d

nextdm

Base address of next DM; reads as zero to indicate there is only one DM

0x20

progbuf0

Program buffer 0

0x21

progbuf1

Program buffer 1

0x30

authdata

Data to/from the authentication module

0x38

sbcs

System bus access control and status; reads as zero to indicate there is no system bus access

data0

0x04

Abstract data 0

data0

Reset value: 0x00000000

Basic read/write data exchange register to be used with abstract commands (for example to read/write data from/to CPU GPRs).

dmcontrol

0x10

Debug module control register

dmcontrol

Reset value: 0x00000000

Control of the overall debug module and the hart. The following table shows all implemented bits. All remaining bits/bit-fields are configured as "zero" and are read-only. Writing '1' to these bits/fields will be ignored.

Table 97. dmcontrol Register Bits
Bit Name [RISC-V] R/W Description

31

haltreq

-/w

set/clear hart halt request

30

resumereq

-/w

request hart to resume

28

ackhavereset

-/w

write 1 to clear *havereset flags

1

ndmreset

r/w

put whole system (except OCD) into reset state when 1

0

dmactive

r/w

DM enable; writing 0-1 will reset the DM

dmstatus

0x11

Debug module status register

dmstatus

Reset value: 0x00400083

Current status of the overall debug module and the hart. The entire register is read-only.

Table 98. dmstatus Register Bits
Bit Name [RISC-V] Description

31:23

reserved

reserved; zero

22

impebreak

1: indicates an implicit ebreak instruction after the last program buffer entry

21:20

reserved

reserved; zero

19

allhavereset

1 when the hart is in reset

18

anyhavereset

17

allresumeack

1 when the hart has acknowledged a resume request

16

anyresumeack

15

allnonexistent

zero to indicate the hart is always existent

14

anynonexistent

13

allunavail

1 when the DM is disabled to indicate the hart is unavailable

12

anyunavail

11

allrunning

1 when the hart is running

10

anyrunning

9

allhalted

1 when the hart is halted

8

anyhalted

7

authenticated

set if authentication passed; see Debug Authentication

6

authbusy

set if authentication is busy, see Debug Authentication

5

hasresethaltreq

0: halt-on-reset is not supported (directly)

4

confstrptrvalid

0: no configuration string available

3:0

version

0011: DM compatible to debug spec. version v1.0

hartinfo

0x12

Hart information

hartinfo

Reset value: see below

This register gives information about the hart. The entire register is read-only.

Table 99. hartinfo Register Bits
Bit Name [RISC-V] Description

31:24

reserved

reserved; zero

23:20

nscratch

0001: number of dscratch* CPU registers = 1

19:17

reserved

reserved; zero

16

dataccess

0: the data registers are shadowed in the hart’s address space

15:12

datasize

0001: number of 32-bit words in the address space dedicated to shadowing the data registers (1 register)

11:0

dataaddr

= dm_data_base_c(11:0), signed base address of data words (see address map in DM CPU Access)

abstracts

0x16

Abstract control and status

abstracts

Reset value: 0x02000801

Command execution info and status.

Table 100. abstracts Register Bits
Bit Name [RISC-V] R/W Description

31:29

reserved

r/-

reserved; zero

28:24

progbufsize

r/-

0010: size of the program buffer (progbuf) = 2 entries

23:11

reserved

r/-

reserved; zero

12

busy

r/-

set when a command is being executed

11

relaxedpriv

r/-

1: PMP rules are ignored when in debug mode

10:8

cmderr

r/w

error during command execution (see below); has to be cleared by writing 111

7:4

reserved

r/-

reserved; zero

3:0

datacount

r/-

0001: number of implemented data registers for abstract commands = 1

Error codes in cmderr (highest priority first):

  • 000 - no error

  • 100 - command cannot be executed since hart is not in expected state

  • 011 - exception during command execution

  • 010 - unsupported command

  • 001 - invalid DM register read/write while command is/was executing

command

0x17

Abstract command

command

Reset value: 0x00000000

Writing this register will trigger the execution of an abstract command. New command can only be executed if cmderr is zero. The entire register in write-only (reads will return zero).

The NEORV32 DM only supports Access Register abstract commands. These commands can only access the hart’s GPRs x0 - x15/31 (abstract command register index 0x1000 - 0x101f).
Table 101. command Register Bits
Bit Name [RISC-V] R/W Description / required value